Ecological controls on the evolutionary recovery of post-Paleozoic crinoids

Science

Volumn 274, Issue 5292, 1996, Pages 1492-1495

  Foote, Mike ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BIODIVERSITY; ECHINODERM; ECOLOGY; EVOLUTION; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; TAXONOMY;

CRINOID; DIVERSIFICATION; EVOLUTION; PALAEOECOLOGY; TRIASSIC;

EID: 0029659559     PISSN: 00368075     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1126/science.274.5292.1492     Document Type: Article

References (70)

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25. The character set is a modification of that used for Paleozoic crinoids (10). Included are 11 characters of the stem, 32 cup characters, 22 brachial characters, and 4 tegminal characters. Morphological differences between Paleozoic and post-Paleozoic crinoids mean that a modified character set is more informative, although Paleozoic and post-Paleozoic crinoids could be accommodated by the same character set.
26. W. B. Harland et al., A Geologic Time Scale 1989 (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1990).
27. Data and sources are available from the author on request. Genera not sampled are those too poorly preserved to allow reliable character coding.
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30. J. J. Sepkoski Jr., personal communication.
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32. _, Milw. Public Mus. Contrib. Biol. Geol. 83, 1 (1992), with updates (10, 22); M. J. Simms, A. S. Gale, P. Gilliland, E. P. F. Rose, G. D. Sevastopulo, in The Fossil Record 2, M. J. Benton, Ed. (Chapman and Hall, London, 1993), pp. 491-528.
33. Sampling is irregular after the Eocene, and so measures of disparity are not presented here; however, the available character data suggest no post-Eocene increase in disparity.
34. The cited work (10) excluded the Middle Cambrian Echmatocrinus, a possible crinoid [J. Sprinkle, Morphology and Evolution of Blastozoan Echinoderms (Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 1973); _ and D. Collins, Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Progr. 27, A113 (1995)] whose affinities have been questioned [S. Conway Morris, Nature 361, 219 (1993); W. I. Ausich and L. E. Babcock, in Sixth North American Paleontological Convention Abstracts of Papers, J. E. Repetski, Ed. (Paleontological Society, Washington, DC, 1996), p. 16].
35. The cited work (10) excluded the Middle Cambrian Echmatocrinus, a possible crinoid [J. Sprinkle, Morphology and Evolution of Blastozoan Echinoderms (Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 1973); _ and D. Collins, Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Progr. 27, A113 (1995)] whose affinities have been questioned [S. Conway Morris, Nature 361, 219 (1993); W. I. Ausich and L. E. Babcock, in Sixth North American Paleontological Convention Abstracts of Papers, J. E. Repetski, Ed. (Paleontological Society, Washington, DC, 1996), p. 16].
36. The cited work (10) excluded the Middle Cambrian Echmatocrinus, a possible crinoid [J. Sprinkle, Morphology and Evolution of Blastozoan Echinoderms (Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 1973); _ and D. Collins, Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Progr. 27, A113 (1995)] whose affinities have been questioned [S. Conway Morris, Nature 361, 219 (1993); W. I. Ausich and L. E. Babcock, in Sixth North American Paleontological Convention Abstracts of Papers, J. E. Repetski, Ed. (Paleontological Society, Washington, DC, 1996), p. 16].
37. The cited work (10) excluded the Middle Cambrian Echmatocrinus, a possible crinoid [J. Sprinkle, Morphology and Evolution of Blastozoan Echinoderms (Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 1973); _ and D. Collins, Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Progr. 27, A113 (1995)] whose affinities have been questioned [S. Conway Morris, Nature 361, 219 (1993); W. I. Ausich and L. E. Babcock, in Sixth North American Paleontological Convention Abstracts of Papers, J. E. Repetski, Ed. (Paleontological Society, Washington, DC, 1996), p. 16].
38. Yu. A. Arendt Trans. Palaeontol. Inst. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R. 144, 1 (1974).
39. Data were reanalyzed with each of the recognized orders (Bourgueticrinida, Comatulida, Cyrtocrinida, Encrinida, Isocrinida, Millericrinida, Roveacrinida, and Uintacrinida) omitted in turn [according to methods in M. Foote, Paleobiology 19, 403 (1993)]. Except for Cyrtocrinida, omitting a single order leaves Neocomian and Late Triassic disparity subequal. When Cyrtocrinida are omitted, disparity through the first two Cretaceous intervals is reduced to the Jurassic level. When Cyrtocrinida and Roveacrinida are omitted, disparity is nearly constant throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous.
40. P. de Loriol, Paléontologie Française, ou Description des Fossiles de la France, Série 1, Animaux Inverté brés. Terrain Jurassique (Massen, Paris, 1882-1889).
41. Because of incomplete preservation, most species have at least some missing character data. In this analysis I used the species in each genus with the fewest missing characters.
42. Because unordered characters cannot be averaged, I first ordinated species using principal-coordinates analysis [J. C. Gower, Biometrika 53, 325 (1966)] on the between-species morphological distance matrix (10). Twenty principal coordinates were used because interspecies distances based on this number of coordinates correlate well with distances based on the raw character data. Similar results are obtained if other numbers of principal coordinates are used.
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44. D. L. Meyer and D. B. Macurda Jr., ibid. 3, 74 (1977).
45. E. S. Pearson, Biometrika 18, 173 (1926); M. Foote, Paleobiology 18, 1 (1992).
46. E. S. Pearson, Biometrika 18, 173 (1926); M. Foote, Paleobiology 18, 1 (1992).
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52. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
53. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
54. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
55. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
56. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
57. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
58. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
59. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
60. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
61. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
62. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
63. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
64. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
65. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
66. N. G. Lane, J. Paleontol. 37, 917 (1963); J. C. Brower, ibid. 40, 613 (1966); ibid. 61, 999 (1987); A. Breimer, Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet. Ser. B 72, 139 (1969); _ and G. D. Webster, ibid. 78, 149 (1975); D. L. Meyer, Mar. Biol. 22, 105 (1973); in Echinoderm Nutrition, M Jangoux and J. M. Lawrence, Eds. (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1983), pp. 25-42; M. Roux, Geobios (Lyon) 11, 213 (1978) ; A. Breimer and N. G. Lane, in Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part T, Echinodermata 2, R. C. Moore and C. Teichert, Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, and University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978), pp. 316-347; G. Ubaghs, ibid., pp. 58-216; W. I. Ausich, J. Paleontol. 54, 273 (1980); ibid. 57, 31 (1983); ibid. 62, 906 (1988); C. E. Brett, Lethaia 14, 343 (1981); S. K. Donovan, ibid 21, 169 (1988); ibid. 23, 291 (1990); T. W. Kammer, J. Paleontol. 59, 551 (1985); _ and W. I. Ausich, Paleobiology 13, 379 (1987).
67. G.G. Simpson, The Major Features of Evolution (Columbia Univ. Press, New York, 1953); L. Van Valen, Evolution 25, 420 (1971).
68. G.G. Simpson, The Major Features of Evolution (Columbia Univ. Press, New York, 1953); L. Van Valen, Evolution 25, 420 (1971).
69. J. J. Sepkoski Jr. and D. M. Raup, in Dynamics of Extinction, D. K. Elliott, Ed. (Wiley, New York, 1986). pp. 3-36.
70. I thank B. Chernoff and D. Jablonski for advice and discussions; B. Chernoff, D. Jablonski, and A. I. Miller for reviews; J. J. Sepkoski Jr. for unpublished data on crinoid genera and families; and T. K. Baumiller, D. Jablonski, and the staff of the John Crerar Library for help in obtaining literature. This research was supported by NSF (grants DEB-9207577, DEB-9496348, and EAR-9506568).