Human pathogens and their indicators in biosolids: A literature review

Environment International

Volumn 35, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 187-201

  Sidhu, Jatinder P S ^a   Toze, Simon G ^a  

^a CSIRO   (Australia)

Author keywords

Biosolids; Enteric viruses; Index; Indicators; Model; Pathogens; Protozoa; Survival

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS; BIOSOLIDS; HEALTH RISKS; INDICATORS (INSTRUMENTS); MICROORGANISMS; MODELS; PROTOZOA; RISK ASSESSMENT; VIRUSES; WATER CONSERVATION; WATER RESOURCES;

ENTERIC PATHOGENS; ENTERIC VIRUS; HUMAN POPULATION; INDEX; LITERATURE REVIEWS; QUANTITATIVE DATA; QUANTITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT; SURVIVAL;

PATHOGENS;

AGRICULTURE; BIOSOLID; FOOD CHAIN; MICROORGANISM; PATHOGEN; PROTOZOAN; RISK ASSESSMENT; VIRUS; WATER RESOURCE;

BACTERIOPHAGE; BIOSOLID; FOOD CHAIN; FOOD CONTAMINATION; HEALTH HAZARD; INDICATOR ORGANISM; MICROBIAL VIABILITY; MICROORGANISM DETECTION; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTOZOON; PUBLIC HEALTH; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SURVIVAL; VIRUS; WASTE WATER; WATER CONTAMINATION;

PROTOZOA;

EID: 56949094139     PISSN: 01604120     EISSN: 18736750     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2008.07.006     Document Type: Review

References (245)

1. Abbaszadegan M., Huber M.S., Gerba C.P., and Pepper I.L. Detection of viable Giardia cysts by amplification of heat shock-induced mRNA. Appl Environ Microbiol 63 1 (1997) 324-328
2. Adam R.D. Biology of Giardia lamblia. Clin Microbiol Rev 14 3 (2001) 447-475
3. Adams V.J., Markus M.B., Adams J.F.A., Jordaan E., Curtis B., Dhansay M.A., et al. Paradoxical helminthiasis and Giardiasis in Cape Town, South Africa: epidemiology and control. Afr Health Sci 5 2 (2005) 131-136
4. Ahmed A.U., and Sorensen D.W. Kinetics of pathogen destruction during storage of dewatered biosolids. Water Environ Res 67 (1995) 143-150
5. Aitken M.D., Sobsey M.D., Blauth K.E., Shehee M., Crunk P.L., and Walters G.W. Inactivation of Ascaris suum and poliovirus in biosolids under thermophilic anaerobic digestion conditions. Environ Sci Technol 39 15 (2005) 5804-5809
6. Albert M., and Schwartzbrod L. Recovery of enteric virus from primary sludge using three elution concentration procedures. Water Sci Technol 24 2 (1991) 225-228
7. Albinana-Gimenez N., Clemente-Casares P., Bofilll-Mas S., Hundesa A., Ribas F., and Girones R. Distribution of human polyomavirus, adenovirus and hepatitis E virus in the environment and in a drinking water treatment plant. Environ Sci Technol 40 23 (2006) 7416-7422
8. Allwood P.B., Malik Y.S., Hedberg C.W., and Goyal S.M. Survival of F-specific RNA coliphage, feline Calicivirus, and Escherichia coli in water: a comparative study. Appl Environ Microbiol 69 9 (2003) 5707-5710
9. Anderson E.J., and Weber S.G. Rotavirus infection in adults. Lancet Infect Dis 4 (2004) 91-99
10. Anguish L.J., and Ghiorse W.C. Computer-assisted laser scanning and video microscopy for analysis of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in soil, sediment, and feces. Appl Environ Microbiol 63 2 (1997) 724-733
11. Anonymous. Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Centre for disease Control and Prevention 13 (2001) 241-260
12. Araujo M., Sueiro R.A., Gomez M.J., and Garrido M.J. Enumeration of Clostridium perfringens spores in groundwater samples: comparison of six culture media. J Microbiol Methods 57 (2004) 175-180
13. Arraj A., Bohatier J., Laveran H., and Traore O. Comparison of bacteriophage and enteric virus removal in pilot scale activated sludge plants. J Appl Microbiol 98 (2005) 516-524
14. Avery S., Moore A., and Hurchison M.L. Fate of Escherichia coli originating from livestock faeces deposited directly onto pasture. Lett Appl Microbiol 35 (2004) 355-359
15. Bahlaoui M.A., Baleux B., and Troussellier M. Dynamics of pollution-indicator and pathogenic bacteria in high rate oxidation wastewater treatment ponds. Water Res 31 3 (1997) 630-638
16. Barbier D., Perrine D., Duhamel C., Doublet R., and Georges P. Parasitic hazard with sewage sludge applied to land. Appl Environ Microbiol 56 5 (1990) 1420-1422
17. Berg G., and Berman D. Destruction by anaerobic mesophilic and thermophilic digestion of viruses and indicator bacteria indigenous to domestic sludges. Appl Environ Microbiol 39 2 (1980) 361-368
18. Besser R.E., Lett S.M., Weber J.T., Doyle M.P., Barrett T.J., Wells J.G., et al. An outbreak of diarrhea and hemolytic uremic syndrome from Escherichia coli O157:H7 in fresh-pressed apple cider. JAMA 269 (1993) 2217-2220
19. Block J.C. Epidemiological studies of risk associated with agricultural use of sewage sludge: knowledge needs. In: Block J.C., Havelaar H.A., and Hermite P.L. (Eds). Biological health risks of sludge disposal (1986), Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London
20. Bofill-Mas S., Pina S., and Girones R. Documenting the epidemiologic patterns of polyomaviruses in human populations by studying their presence in urban sewage. Appl Environ Microbiol 66 1 (2001) 238-245
21. Bofill-Mas S., Albinana-Gimenez N., Clemente-Casares P., Hundesa A., Rodriguez-Manzano J., Allard A., et al. Qunatification and stability of human adenovirus and polyomavirus JCPyVin wastewater matrices. Appl Environ Microbiol 72 12 (2006) 7894-7896
22. Bon F., Ambert-Balay K., Giraudon H., Kaplon J., Le Guyader S., Pommepuy M., et al. Molecular epidemiology of caliciviruses detected in sporadic and outbreak cases of gastroenteritis in France from December 1998 to February 2004. J Clin Microbiol 43 (2005) 4659-4664
23. Bonjoch X., Balleste E., and Blanch A.R. Multiplex PCR with 16S rRNA gene-targeted primers of Bifidobacterium spp. to identify sources of fecal pollution. Appl Environ Microbiol 70 5 (2004) 3171-3175
24. Borrego J., Cornax R., Morinigo M.A., Martinez-Manzanares E., and Romero P. Coliphage as an indicator of faecal pollution in water. Their survival and productive infectivity in natural aquatic environment. Water Res 24 11 (1990) 111-116
25. Bosch A., Lucena F., and Jofre J. Fate of human entric viruses (Rotaviruses and entereoviruses) in sewage after primary sedimentation. Water Sci Technol 18 12 (1986) 47-52
26. Bosch A., Pinto R.M., Blanch A.R., and Jofre J.T. Detection of human rotavirus in sewage through two concentration procedures. Water Res 22 (1988) 343-348
27. Bowman D.D., Little M.D., and Reimers R.S. Precision and accuracy of an assay for detecting Ascaris eggs in various biosolid matrices. Water Res 37 (2003) 2063-2072
28. Brewster J., Oleszkiewicz J., Bujoczek G., Reimers R.S., Abu-Orf M., Bowman D., et al. Inactivation of Ascaris suum eggs in digested and dewatered biosolids and lime and fly ash at bench scale and full scale. J Environ Engi Sci 2 (2003) 395-400
29. Brewster J., Oleszkiewicz J., Coombs K.M., and Nartey A. Enteric virus indicators: reovirus versus poliovirus. J Environ Eng 131 7 (2005) 1010-1013
30. Burke V., Robinson J., Gracey M., Peterson D., and Partridge K. Ioslation of Aeromonas hydrophila from metropolitan water supply: seasonal correlation with clinical isolates. Appl Environ Microbiol 48 2 (1984) 361-366
31. Burtscher C., and Wuertz S. Evaluation of the use of PCR and reverse transcriptase PCR for detection of pathogenic bacteria in biosolids from anaerobic digestors and aerobic composters. Appl Environ Microbiol 69 8 (2003) 4618-4627
32. Caccio S.M., Giacomo M.D., Aulicino F.A., and Pozio E. Giardia cysts in wastewater treatment plants in Italy. Appl Environ Microbiol 69 6 (2003) 3393-3398
33. Capizzi-Banas S., Deloge M., Remy M., and Schwartzbrod J. Liming as an advanced treatment for sludge sanitisation:helminth eggs elimination Ascaris eggs as model. Water Res 38 (2004) 3251-3258
34. Carducci A., Tozzi E., Rubulotta E., Casini B., Cantiani L., Rovini E., et al. Assessing airborne biological hazard from urban wastewater treatment. Water Res 34 4 (2000) 1173-1178
35. Carey C.M., Lee H., and Trevors J.T. Biology, persistence and detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis oocyst. Water Res 38 (2004) 818-862
36. Casas N., and Sunen E. Detection of enteric viruses, hepatitis A virus and rotaviruses in sewage by means of an immunimagnetic capture reverse transcription-PCR assay. Microbiol Res 157 (2002) 169-175
37. Catalan V., Garcia F., Moreno C., Vila M.J., and Apraiz D. Detection of Legionella pneumophila in wastewater by nested polymerase chain reaction. Res Microbiol 148 1 (1997) 71-78
38. Chapron C.D., Ballester N.A., and Margoli A.B. The detection of astroviruses in sludge biosolids using an integrated cell culture nested PCR technique. J Appl Microbiol 89 (2000) 11-15
39. Chauret C., Springthrope S., and Sattar S. Fate of Cryptosporidium oocysts, Giardia cysts, and microbial indicators during wastewater treatment and anaerobic sludge digestion. Can J Microbiol 45 (1999) 257-262
40. Choi S., and Jiang S.C. Real-time PCR quantification of human adenoviruses in urban rivers indicates genome prevalence but low infectivity. Appl Environ Microbiol 71 11 (2005) 7426-7433
41. Chung H., and Sobsey M.D. Comparative survival of indicator viruses and enteric viruses in sweater and sediments. Water Sci Technol 27 3-4 (1993) 425-428
42. Cornax R., Morinigo M.A., Balebona M.C., Castro D., and Borrego J.J. Significance of several bacteriophage groups as indicators of sewage pollution in marine waters. Water Res 25 (1991) 673-678
43. Cotte L., Rabodonirina M., Chapuis F., Bailly F., Bissue F., Raynal C., et al. Waterborne outbreak of intestinal microsporidiosis in persons with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis 180 (1999) 2003-2008
44. Dahab M.F., and Surampalli R.Y. Effects of aerobic and anaerobic digestion systems on pathogen indicator reduction in municipal sludge. Water Sci Technol 46 10 (2002) 181-187
45. Dahling D.R., Safferman R.S., and Wright B.A. Isolation of enterovirus and reovirus from sewage and treated effluents in selected Puerto Rican communities. Appl Environ Microbiol 55 2 (1989) 503-506
46. Dal-Re R., Garci{dotless}a-Corbeira P., and Garci{dotless}a de Lomas J. A large percentage of the Spanish population under 30 years of age is not protected against hepatitis. Am J Med Virol 60 (2000) 363-366
47. Davise C.M., Kaucner C., Deere D., and Ashbolt N. Recovery and enumeration of Cryptosporidium parvum from animal fecal matrices. Appl Environ Microbiol 69 5 (2003) 2842-2847
48. de Gruijter J.M., Lieshout L.V., Gasser R.B., Verweij J.J., Briene E.A.T., Ziem J.B., et al. Polymerase chain reaction based differential diagnosis of Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus infections in humans in northern Ghana. Trop Med Int Health 10 6 (2005) 574-580
49. Deportes I., Benoit-Guyod J.L., Zmirou D., and Bouvier M.C. Microbial disinfection capacity of municipal solid waste (MSW) composting. J Appl Microbiol 85 (1998) 238-246
50. del MarLleo M., Pierobon S., Tafi M.C., Signoretto C., and Pietro Canepari P. mRNA detection by reverse transcription-PCR for monitoring viability over time in an Enterococcus faecalis viable but nonculturable population maintained in a laboratory microcosm. Appl Environ Microbiol 66 10 (2000) 4564-4567
51. de Victorica J., and Galvan M. Preliminary testing of a rapid coupled methodology for quantitation/viability determination of heminth eggs in raw and treated wastewater. Water Res 37 (2003) 1278-1287
52. Di-Giovanni G.D., and LeChevallier M.W. Quantitative-PCR assessment of Cryptosporidium parvum cell culture infection. Appl Environ Microbiol 71 3 (2005) 1495-1500
53. Douglas J. Bacteriophages (1957), Chapman and hall, London
54. Dowd S.E., Gerba C.P., and Pepper I.L. Confirmation of the human-pathogenic microsporidia Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Encephalitozoon intestinalis, and Vittaforma corneae in water. Appl Environ Microbiol 64 9 (1998) 3332-3335
55. Dubois E., Le Guyader F., Haugarreau L., Kopecka H., Cormier M., and Pommepuy M. Molecular epidemiological survey of rotaviruses in sewage by reverse transcriptase seminested PCR and restriction fragment length polymorphism assay. Appl Environ Microbiol 63 5 (1997) 1794-1800
56. Dudley D.J., Guentzel M.N., Ibarra M.J., Moore B.M., and Sagik B.P. Enumeration of potentially pathogenic bacteria from sewage sludges. Appl Environ Microbiol 39 1 (1980) 118-126
57. Dumontet S., Scopa A., Kerje S., and Krovacek K. The importance of pathogenic organisms on sewage and sewage sludge. J Air Waste Manage assoc 51 (2001) 848-860
58. Eamens G.J., Lavis A.M., and Ross A.D. Survival of pathogenic indicator bacteria in biosolids applied to agricultural land. Biosolids research in NSW. organic Waste Recycling (1996), NSW Agriculture, Richmond
59. Ellis K.V., Hurst C.J., and Gomez C.L. Parasite ova and cysts in waste stabilisation ponds. Water Res 27 (1993) 1455-1460
60. Engstrand L. Helicobacter in water and waterborne routes of transmission. J Appl Microbiol 90 (2001) 80S-84S
61. Enriquez C.E., Hurst C.J., and Gerba C.P. Survival of the enteric adenovirus 40 and 41 in tap, sea and waste water. Water Res 29 11 (1995) 2548-2553
62. Fayer R., Morgan U., and Upton S.J. Epidemiology of Cryptosporidium: transmission, detection and identification. Int J Parasitol 30 (2000) 1305-1322
63. Feachem R.D., Bradley D.J., Garelick H., and Mara D.D. Sanitation and diseases: health aspects of excreta and wastewater management (1983), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester
64. Finney M., Smullen J., Foster H.A., Brokx S., and Storey D.M. Evaluation of Chromocult coliform agar for the detection and enumeration of Enterobacteriaceae from faecal samples from healthy subjects. J Microbiol Meth 54 (2003) 353-358
65. Fradkin L., Goyal S.M., Bruins R.J.F., Gerba C.P., Scarpino P., and Stara J.F. Municipal wastewater sludge: the potential public health impact of common pathogens. J Environ Health 51 3 (1989) 148-152
66. Franks A.H., Harmse H.J.M., Raangs G.C., Jansen G.J., Schut F., and Welling G.W. Variations of bacterial populations in human feces measured by fluorescent In Situ hybridization with group-specific 16S rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes. Appl Environ Microbiol 64 9 (1998) 3336-3345
67. Fundberg S.W., and Sorber C.A. Coliphage as indicators of enteric viruses in activated sludge. Water Res 19 5 (1985) 547-555
68. Gantzer C., Maul A., Audic J.M., and Schwartzbrod J. Infectious enteroviruses, enterovirus genomes, somatic coliphages, and Bacteroides fragilis phages in treated wastewater. Appl Environ Microbiol 664 11 (1998) 4307-4312
69. Gantzer C., Gaspard P., Galvez L., Huyard A., Dumouthier N., and Schwartzbrod J. Monitoring of bacterial and parasitological contamination during various treatment of sludge. Water Res 35 16 (2001) 3763-3770
70. Garrec N., Picard-Bonnaud F., and Pourcher A.M. Occurrence of Listeria sp. and L. monocytogenes in sewage sludge used for land application: effect of dewatering liming and storage in tank on survival of Listeria species. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 35 (2003) 275-283
71. Gaspard P., Wiart J., and Schwartzbrod J. Parasitological contamination of urban sludge for agricultural purpose. Waste Manag Res 15 (1997) 429-436
72. Gerba C.P., Gramos D.M., and Nwachuku N. Comparative inactivation of enteroviruses and adenovirus 2 by UV light. Appl Environ Microbiol 68 10 (2002) 5167-5169
73. Gerba C.P., Pepper I.L., and Whitehead III L.F. A risk assessment of emerging pathogens of concern in the land application of biosolids. Water Sci Technol 46 10 (2002) 225-230
74. Gibbs R., Hu C.J., Ho G.E., Unkovich I., and Phillips P. Die-off of human pathogens in stored wastewater sludge and sludge applied to land. UWRAA Research Project no. [55-51(91/58)] (1994)
75. Gibbs R.A., Hu C.J., Ho G.E., and Unkovich I. Regrowth of faecal coliforms and Salmonella in the stored biosolids and soil amended with biosolids. Water Sci Technol 35 11-12 (1997) 269-275
76. Gillpatric S.G., Schwab K.J., Estes M.K., and Atmar R.L. development of an immunomagnetic capture reverse transcription-PCR assay for the detection of Norwalk virus. J Virol Methods 90 (2000) 69-78
77. Gilles H.M. Selective primary health care: strategies for control of disease in the developing world. XVII. Hookworm infection and anemia. Rev Infect Dis 7 1 (1985) 111-118
78. Girones R. Tracking viruses that contaminate environment. J Environ Eng Sci 1 1 (2006) 19-25
79. Govan J.R.W., and Deretic V. Microbial pathogenesis in cystic fibrosis: mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cepacia. Microbiol Rev 60 3 (1996) 539-574
80. Goyal S.M., Schaub S.A., Wellings F.M., Berman D., Glass J.S., Hurst C.J., et al. Round robin investigation of methods for recovering human enteric viruses from sludge. Appl Environ Microbiol 48 3 (1984) 531-538
81. Grabow W.O., Favorov M.O., Khudyakova N.S., Taylor M.B., and Fields H.A. Hepatitis E seroprevalence in selected individuals in South Africa. J Med Virol 44 4 (1994) 384-388
82. Haas C.N., and Rose J.B. Distribution of cryptosporidium oocysts in a water supply. Water Res 30 10 (1996) 2251-2254
83. Haas C.N., Rose J.B., and Gerba C.P. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (1999), John Wiley and Sons, New York
84. Handzel T.R., Green R.M., Sanchez C., Chung H., and Sobsey M.D. Improved specificity in detecting F-specific coliphages in environmental samples by suppression of somatic phages. Water Sci Technol 27 (1993) 123-131
85. Harwood V.J., Levine A.D., Scott T.M., Chivukula V., Lukasik J., Farrah S.R., et al. Validity of the indicator organism paradigm for pathogen reduction in reclaimed water and public health protection. Appl Environ Microbiol 71 60 (2005) 3163-3170
86. Havelaar A.H., and Hogeboom W.M. A method for the enumeration of male-specific bacteriophages in sewage. J Appl Bacteriol 56 (1984) 439-447
87. Havelaar A.H., Furuse K., and Hogeboom W.M. Bacteriophages and indicator bacteria in human and animal faeces. J Appl Bacteriol 60 (1986) 255-262
88. He J.W., and Jiang S. Quantification of enterococci and human adenoviruses in environmental samples by real-time PCR. Appl Environ Microbiol 71 5 (2005) 2250-2255
89. Hegarty J.P., Dowd M.T., and Baker K.H. Occurrence of Helicobacter pylori in surface water in the United States. J Appl Microbiol 87 (1999) 697-701
90. Herwaldt B.L. Cyclospora cayetanensis: a review, focusing on the uutbreaks of cyclosporiasis in the 1990s. Clin Infect Dis 31 (2000) 1040-1057
91. Hijnen W.A.M., Willemsen-Zwaagstra J., Hiemstra P., and van der Kooij D. Removal of sulphite-reducing clostridia spores by full-scale water treatment processes as a surrogate for protozoan oo(cysts) removal. Water Sci Technol 41 7 (2000) 165-171
92. Horman A., Rimhaned-Finne R., Maunula L., von-Bonsdorff C.H., Torvela N., Heikinheimo A., et al. Campylobacter spp., Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp., noroviruses and indicator organism in surface water in south-western Finland, 2000-2001. Appl Environ Microbiol 70 1 (2004) 87-95
93. Horan N.J., Fletcher L., Betmal S., Wilks S.A., and Keevil C.W. Die-off of enteric pathogens during mesophilic anaerobic digestion. Water Res 38 5 (2004) 1113-1120
94. Hu C.J., Gibbs R.A., Mort N.R., Hofstede H.T., Ho G.E., and Unkovich I. Giardia and its implications for sludge disposal. Water Sci Technol 34 7-8 (1996) 179-186
95. Hunter P.R. Water borne outbreak of microsporidiasis (letter). J Infect Dis 182 (2000) 380-381
96. Hurst C.J., Crawford R.L., Knudsen G.R., McInerney M.J., and Stetzenbach L.D. Manual of environmental microbiology. 2nd ed. (2002), ASM Press, Washington, D. C
97. Hussong D., Burger W.D., and Enkiri N.K. Occurrence, growth, and suppression of Salmonellae in composted sewage sludge. Appl Environ Microbiol 50 4 (1985) 887-893
98. Irving L.G., and Smith F.A. One-year survey of enteroviruses, adenoviruses and reoviruses isolated from effluent at an activated-sludge purification plant. Appl Environ Microbiol 41 1 (1981) 51-59
99. Jimenez B., Barrios J.A., and Maya C. Class B biosolids production from wastewater sludge with high pathogenic content generated in an advanced primary treatment. Water Sci Technol 42 9 (2000) 103-110
100. John D.E., Haas C.N., Nwachuku N., and Gerba C.P. Chlorine and ozone disinfection of Encephalitozoon intestinalis spores. Water Res 39 (2005) 2369-2375
101. Johnson P.W., Dixon R., and Ross A.D. An in-vitro test for assessing the viability of Ascaric suum eggs exposed to various sewage treatment processes. Int J Parasitol 28 (1998) 627-633
102. Johnson C.H., Marshall M.M., DeMaria L.A., Moffet J.M., and Korich D.G. Chlorine inactivation of spores of Encephalitozoon spp. Appl Environ Microbiol 69 2 (2003) 1325-1326
103. Jones K. Campylobacter in water, sewage and the environment. J Appl Microbiol 90 (2001) 68S-79S
104. Kato S., Fogarty E., and Bowman D. Effect of aerobic and anaerobic digestion on the viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts and Ascaris suum eggs. Int J Environ Health Res 13 2 (2003) 169-179
105. Kearney T.E., Larkin M.J., Frost J.P., and Levett P.N. Survival of pathogenic bacteria during mesophillic anaerobic digestion of animal water. J Appl Bacteriol 75 3 (1993) 215-219
106. Ketratanakul A., and Ohgaki S. Indigenous coliphages and RNA-F-specific coliphages associated to suspended solid in activated sludge process. Water Sci Technol 21 (1988) 73-78
107. King B.J., Keegan A., Monis P.T., and Saint C.P. Environmental temperature controls Cryptosporidium oocyst metabolic rate and associated retention of infectivity. Appl Environ Microbiol 71 7 (2005) 3848-3857
108. Kirkwood C., Bogdanovic-Sakran N., Barnes G., and Bishop R. Rotavirus serotype G9P[8] and acute gastroenteritis outbreak in children, northern Australia. Emerg Infect Dis 10 9 (2004) 1593-1600
109. Ko G., Jothikumar N., Hill V.R., and Sobse M.D. Rapid detection of infectious adenoviruses by mRNA real-time RT-PCR. J Virol Meth 127 (2005) 148-153
110. Koff R.S. Seroepidemiology of hepatitis A in the United States. J Infect Dis 171 (1995) 19-23
111. Krawczynski K., Aggarwal R., and Kamili S. Hepatitis E. Infect Dis Clin North Am 14 3 (2000) 669-687
112. Kreader C.A. Releif of amplification inhibition in PCR with bovine serum albumin or T4 gene 32 protein. Appl Environ Microbiol 62 3 (1996) 1102-1106
113. Krikelis V., Spyrou N., Markoulatos P., and Serie C. Seasonal distribution of enteroviruses and adenoviruses in domestic sewage. Can J Microbiol 31 (1985) 24-25
114. Kuczynska E., and Shelton D.R. Method for detection and enumeration of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in feces, manures and soils. Appl Environ Microbiol 65 7 (1999) 2820-2826
115. Kudva I.T., Blanch K., and Hovde C.J. Analysis of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in ovine or bovine manure and manure slurries. Appl Environ Microbiol 64 9 (1998) 3166-3174
116. Laberge I., Ibrahim A., Barta J.R., and Griffiths M.W. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in raw milk by PCR and oligonucleotide probe hybridization. Appl Environ Microbiol 62 9 (1996) 3259-3264
117. Langendijk P.S., Schut F., Jansen G.J., Raangs G.C., Kamphuis G.R., Wilkinson M.H.F., et al. Quantitative fluorescence in situ hybridization of Bifidobacterium spp. with genus-specific 16S rRNA-targeted probes and its application in fecal samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 61 8 (1995) 3069-3075
118. Laverick M.A., Wyn-Jones A.P., and Carter M.J. Quantitative RT-PCR for the enumeration of noroviruses (Norwalk-like viruses) in water and sewage. Lett Appl Microbiol 39 (2004) 127-136
119. Lasobars J., Dellunde J., Jofre J., and Lucena F. Occurrence and levels of phages proposed as surrogate indicators of enteric viruses in different types of sludges. J Appl Microbiol 86 (1999) 723-729
120. Le Cann P., Ranarijaona S., Monpohe S., Le Guyader F., and Ferre V. Quantification of human astroviruses in sewage using real time RT-PCR. Res Microbiol 155 (2004) 11-15
121. LeChevallier M.W., and Kwok-Keung A.U. Water treatment and pathogen control: process efficiency in achieving safe drinking water. World Health Organization (2004), IWA Publishing, London, UK ISBN: 1 84339 08
122. LeChevallier M.W., Norton W.D., Siegel J.E., and Abbaszadegan M. Evaluation of the immunofluorescent procedure for the detection of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in water. Appl Environ Microbiol 61 (1995) 690-697
123. Lemos V., Graczyk T.K., Alves M., Lobo M.L., Sousa M.C., Antune F., et al. Identification and determination of the viability of Giardia lamblia cysts and Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis oocysts in human fecal and water supply samples by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and monoclonal antibodies. Parasitol Res 98 (2005) 48-53
124. Lewis G.D. F-specific bacteriophages as an indicator of human viruses in natural waters and sewage effluents in northern New Zealand. Water Sci Technol 31 5 (1995) 231-234
125. Lewis G.D., and Metcalf T.G. Polyethylene glycol precipitation for recovery of pathogenic viruses including hepatitis A and human rotavirus from oyster, water and sediments. Appl Environ Microbiol 54 (1988) 1983-1988
126. Lodder W.J., and de Roda Husman A.M. Presence of noroviruses and other enteric viruses in sewage and surface waters in the Netherlands. Appl Environ Microbiol 71 3 (2005) 1453-1461
127. Lodder W.J., Vinje J., van de Heide, R., de Roda Husman, A.M., Leenen, E.J.T.M., Koopmans, and M.P.G. Molecular detection of Norwalk-like caliciviruses in sewage. Appl Environ Microbiol 65 12 (1999) 5624-5627
128. Lu Y., Redlinger T.E., Avita R., Galindo A., and Goodman K. Isolation and genotyping of Helicobacter pylori from untreated municipal wastewater. Appl Environ Microbiol 68 3 (2002) 1436-1439
129. Martin J.H., Bostain H.E., and Stern G. Reduction of enteric microorganisms during aerobic sludge digestion. Water Res 24 (1990) 1377-1385
130. Massanet-Nicolau J. New method using sedimentation and immunomagenetic separation for isolation and enumeration of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts and Giardia lamblia cysts. Appl Environ Microbiol 69 11 (2003) 6758-6761
131. Mathis A., Weber R., and Deplazes P. Zoonoticp potential of the Microsporidia. Clin Microbiol Rev 18 3 (2005) 423-445
132. Matsuki T., Watanabe K., Fujimoto J., Miyamoto Y., Takada T., Matsumoto K., et al. Development of 16S rRNA-gene-targeted group-specific primers for the detection and identification of predominant bacteria in human feces. Appl Environ Microbiol 68 11 (2002) 5445-5451
133. Maurer A.M., and Sturchler D. A waterborne outbreak of small round structured virus, Campylobacter and Shigella co-infection in La Neuville, Switzerland, 1998. Epidemiol Infect 125 (2000) 325-332
134. Mayer C.L., and Palmer C.J. Evaluation of PCR, nested PCR, and fluorescent antibodies for detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium species in wastewater. Appl Environ Microbiol 62 6 (1996) 2081-2085
135. Medema G.J., and Schijven J.F. Modelling the sewage discharge and dispersion of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in surface water. Water Res 35 18 (2001) 4307-4316
136. Medema G.J., Schets F.M., van-de-Giessen A.W., and Havelaar A.H. Lasck of colonization of 1 day old chicks by viable, non-culturable Campylobacter jejuni. J Appl Bacteriol 72 (1992) 512-516
137. Medema G.J., Wullings B., Roeleveld P., and Kooij D. Risk assessment of Legionella and enteric pathogens in sewage treatment. Water Sci Technol Water Supply 4 2 (2004) 125-132
138. Miescier J.J., and Cabelli V.J. Enterococci and other microbial indicators in municipal wastewater effluents. J Water Poll Cont Fed 54 (1982) 1599-1606
139. Mignotte-Cadiergues B., Gantzer C., and Schwartzbrod L. Evaluation of bacteriophages during the treatment of sludge. Water Sci Technol 46 10 (2002) 189-194
140. Miranda J.M., Franco1 C.M., Vazquez B.I., Fente C.A., Barros-Velazquez J., and Cepeda A. Evaluation of Chromocult enterococci agar for the isolation and selective enumeration of Enterococcus spp. in broilers. LettAppl Microbiol 41 (2005) 153-156
141. Moce-Llivina L., Muniesa M., Pimenta-Vale H., Lucena F., and Jofre J. Survival of bacterial Indicator species and bacteriophages after thermal treatment of sludge and sewage. Appl Environ Microbiol 69 3 (2003) 1452-1456
142. Morace G., Aulicino F.A., Angelozzi C., Costanzo L., Donadio F., and Rapicetta M. Microbial quality of wastewater: detection of hepatitis A virus by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. J Appl Microbiol 92 (2002) 828-836
143. Monpoeho S., Maul A., Bonnin C., Patria L., Ranarijaona S., Billaudel S., et al. Clearance of human-pathogenic viruses from sludge: study of four stabilization processes by real-time reverse transcription-PCR and cell culture. Appl Environ Microbiol 70 9 (2004) 5434-5440
144. Monti J.R., Chilton N.B., Bao-Zen Q., and Gasser R.B. Specific amplification of Necator americanus or Ancylostoma duodenale DNA by PCR using markers n ITS-1 rDNA, and its implications. Mol Cell Probes 12 (1998) 71-78
145. Montemayor M., Valero F., Jofre J., and Lucena F. Occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in raw and treated sewage and river water in north-eastern Spain. J Appl Microbiol 99 (2005) 1455-1462
146. Nasser A.M., Tchoroch Y., and Fattal B. Validity of serological methods (ELISA) for detecting infectious viruses in water. Science Technol 31 5-6 (1995) 307-310
147. Nasser A.M., Huberman Z., Zilberman A., and Greenfield S. Die-off and retardation of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in loamy soil saturated with secondary effluent. Sci Technol 3 4 (2003) 253-259
148. Nell J.H., Steer A.G., and Van Rensburg P.A.J. Hygienic quality of sewage sludge compost. Water Sci Technol 15 (1983) 181-194
149. Nelson K.L. Concentrations and inactivation of Ascaris eggs and pathogen indicator organisms in wastewater stabilization pond sludge. Water Sci Technol 48 2 (2003) 89-95
150. Nelson K.L., and Darby J.L. Determination of the inactivation rate of Ascaris eggs in wastewater stabilization pond sludge using dialysis chambers and sludge cores. Water Environ Res 4 4 (2002) 362-369
151. Nichols R.A.B., Campbell B.M., and Smith H.V. Identification of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in United Kingdom noncarbonated natural mineral waters and drinking waters by using a modified nested PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism assay. Appl Environ Microbiol 69 7 (2003) 4183-4189
152. Nicholson F.A., Groves S.J., and Chambers B.J. Pathogen survival during livestock manures storage and following land application. Bioresour Technol 96 (2005) 135-143
153. Nieminski E.C., Schaefer F.W., and Ongerth J.E. Comparison of two methods for detection of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in water. Appl Environ Microbiol 61 (1995) 1714-1719
154. Norman K.L., and Lee P.W.E. Reovirus as novel oncolytic agent. J Clin Invest 105 8 (2000) 1035-1038
155. Nwachcuku N., and Gerba C.P. Emerging waterborne pathogens: can we kill them all?. Curr Opin Biotechnol 15 (2004) 175-180
156. O'Connell K.P., Bucher J.R., Anderson P.E., Cao C.J., Khan A.S., Gostomski M.V., et al. Real-time fluorogenic reverse transcription-PCR assays for detection of bacteriophage MS2. Appl Environ Microbiol 72 1 (2006) 478-483
157. O'Donnell C.J., Meyer K.B., and Jones J.V. Survival of parasite eggs upon storage in sludge. Appl Environ Microbiol 28 (1984) 627-633
158. Ogden I.D., Hepburn N.F., MacRae M., Strachan N.J.C., Fenlon D.F., Rusbridge S.M., et al. Long-term survival of Escherichia coli O157 on pasture following an outbreak associated with sheep at a scout camp. Lett Appl Microbiol 34 (2002) 100-124
159. Oishi I., Yamazaki K., Kimoto Y., Minekawa E., Utagawa E., Yamazaki S., et al. A large outbreak of acute gastroenteritis associated with astrovirus among students and teachers in Osaka, Japan. J Infect Dis 170 (1994) 439-443
160. Olson M.E., Goh J., Philips M., Guselle N., and McAllistr T.A. Giardia cyst and Cryptosporidium oocysts survival in water, soil and cattle faeces. J Environ Qual 28 (1999) 1991-1996
161. Parmar N., Singh A., and Ward P. Characterization of the combined effect of enzymes, pH and temperature for removal of pathaogens from sewage sludge. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 17 (2001) 169-172
162. Payment P., and Franko E. Clostridium perfringens and somatic coliphages as indicators of the efficiency of drinking water treatment for viruses and protozoan cysts. Appl Environ Microbiol 59 8 (1993) 2418-2424
163. Payment P., Fortin S., and Trudel M. Elimination of enteric viruses during conventional wastewater treatment by activated sludge. Can J Microbiol 32 (1986) 922-925
164. Payment P., Plante R., and Cejka P. Removal of indicator bacteria, human enteric viruses, Giardia cysts, and Cryptosporidium oocysts at a large wastewater primary treatment facility. Can J Microbiol 47 (2001) 188-193
165. Pederson D.C. Density levels of pathogenic organisms in municipal wastewater sludge-a literature review. (EPA-600/S2-81-170) (1981), US EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio
166. Pereira-Neto J.T., Stentiford E.I., and Mar D.D. Pathogen survival in a refuse/sludge forced aeration compost system. Effluent treatment and disposal (1986), Pergamon Press 373-391 2002
167. Peng X., Luo W., Zang J., Wang S., and Lin S. Rapid detection of Shigella species in environmental sewage by an immunocapture PCR with universal primers. Appl Environ Microbiol 68 5 (2002) 2580-2583
168. Pecson B.M., Barrios J.A., Johnson D.R., and Nelson K.L. A real-time PCR method for quantifying viable Ascaris eggs using the first internally transcribed spacer region of ribosomal DNA. Appl Environ Microbiol 72 12 (2006) 7864-7872
169. Pietronave S., Fracchia L., Rinaldi M., and Martinotti M.G. Influence of biotic and abiotic factors on human pathogens in a finished compost. Water Res 38 (2004) 1963-1970
170. Pina S., Jofre J., Emerson S.U., Purcell R.H., and Girones R. Characterization of a strain of infectious Hepatitis E virus isolated from sewage in an area where Hepatitis E is not endemic. Appl Environ Microbiol 64 11 (1998) 4485-4488
171. Pinto R.M., Abard F.X., Gajardo R., and Bosg A. Detection of infectious astroviruses in water. Appl Environ Microbiol 62 5 (1996) 1811-1813
172. Poffe R., and Op de Beeck E. Enumeration of Aeromonas hydrophila from domestic wastewater treatment plants and surface waters. J Appl Bacteriol 71 (1991) 366-370
173. Pourcher A.M., Morand P., Picard-Bonnaud F., Billaudel S., Monpoeho S., Fererighi M., et al. Decrease of enteric microorganisms from rural sewage sludge during their composting in straw mixture. J Appl Microbiol 99 3 (2005) 528-539
174. Quintero-Betancourt W., Gennaccaro A.L., Scott T.M., and Rose J.B. Assessment of methods for detection of infectious Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in reclaimed effluents. Appl Environ Microbiol 69 9 (2003) 5380-5388
175. Regli S., Rose J., Haas C.N., and Gerba C.P. Modeling the risk from Giardia and viruses in drinking water. J Am Water Works Assoc 83 (1991) 76-84
176. Reynolds K.A. Adenovirus: balancing water treatment challenges. Water Conditioning Purification (2004) 42-43 sept
177. Reynolds K.A., Gerba C.P., and Pepper I.L. Detection of infectious enteroviruses by an integrated cell culture-PCR procedure. Appl Environ Microbiol 62 4 (1996) 1424-1427
178. Reynolds K.A., Gerba C.P., and Pepper I.L. Rapid PCRbased monitoring of infectious enteroviruses in drinking water. Water Sci Technol 35 11-12 (1997) 423-427
179. Rimhanen-Finne R., Vuorinen A., Marmo S., Malberg S., and Hanninen M.L. Comparative analysis of Cryptosporidium, Giardia and indicator bacteria during sewage hygienization in various composting processes. Lett Appl Microbiol 38 (2004) 301-305
180. Ritzler M., and Altwegg M. Sensitivity and specificity of a commercially available enzyme-linked immunoassay for the detection of polymerase chain reaction amplified DNA. J Microbiol Meth 27 2-3 (1996) 233-238
181. Rochelle P.A., De Leon R., Stewart M.H., and Wolfe R.L. Comparison of primers and optimization of PCR conditions for detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia in water. Appl Environ Microbiol 63 1 (1997) 106-114
182. Rohayem J., Berger S., Juretzek T., Ottmar Herchenroder O., Mogel M., Poppe M., et al. A simple and rapid single-step multiplex RT-PCR to detect Norovirus, Astrovirus and Adenovirus in clinical stool samples. J Virol Methods 118 (2004) 49-59
183. Russ C.F., and Yanko W.A. Factors affecting Salmonellae repopulation in composted sludges. Appl Environ Microbiol 41 3 (1981) 597-602
184. Sahlstrom L., Aspa A., Bagge E., Tham M.L.D., and Albihn A. Bacterial pathogen incidences in sludge from Swedish sewage treatment plants. Water Res 38 (2004) 1989-1994
185. Sanguinetti G.S., Tortul C., Garcia M.C., Ferrer V., Montangero A., and Strauss M. Investigating helminth eggs and Salmonella spp. in stabilization ponds treating septage. Water Sci Technol 51 12 (2005) 239-247
186. Scheuerman P.R., Farrah S.R., and Bitton G. Laboratory studies of virus survival during anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge. Water Res 3 (1991) 241-245
187. Schwartzbrod J., and Mathieu L. Virus recovery from wastewater treatment plant sludges. Water Resou 20 8 (1986) 1011-1013
188. Schwartzbrod J.S., and Banas S. Parasite contamination of liquid sludge from urban wastewater treatment plants. Water Sci Technol 47 3 (2003) 163-166
189. Schwartzbrod J., Mathieu C., Thevenot M.T., Baradel J.M., and Schwartzbrod L. Wastewater sludge: parasitological and virological contamination. Water Sci Technol 19 8 (1987) 33-40
190. Sedmak G., Bina D., MacDonald J.M., and Couillard L. Nine-year study of the occurrence of culturable viruses in source water for two drinking water treatment plants and the influent and effluent of a wastewater treatment plant in Milwaukee, Wisconsin (August 19 through July 2003). Appl Environ Microbiol 71 2 (2005) 1042-1050
191. Seely N.D., and Primrose S.B. The effect of temperature on the ecology of aquatic bacteriophages. J Gen Virol 46 (1980) 87-95
192. Seurinck S., Defoirdt T., Verstraete W., and Siciliano S.D. Detection and quantification of the human-specific HF183 Bacteroides 16S rRNA genetic marker with real-time PCR for assessment of human faecal pollution in freshwater. Environ Microbiol 7 2 (2005) 249-259
193. Shaban A.M. Bacteriological evaluation of composting systems in sludge treatment. Water Sci Technol 40 7 (1999) 165-170
194. Sharma S., Sachdeva P., and Virdi J.S. Emerging water-borne pathogens. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 61 (2003) 424-428
195. Shields J.M., and Olson B.H. PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism method for detection of Cyclospora cayetanensis in environmental waters without microscopic confirmation. Appl Environ Microbiol 68 8 (2003) 4662-4669
196. Shuval H.I., Adin A., Fattal B., Rawitz E., and Yekutiel P. Wastewater irrigation in developing countries, health effects and technical solutions. World Bank Technical paper no. 51 (1986), The World Bank, Washington, D.C
197. Sidhu J., Gibbs G.A., Ho G.E., and Unkovich I. The role of indigenous microorganisms in suppression of Salmonella regrowth in composted biosolids. Water Res 35 4 (2001) 913-920
198. Skanavis C., and Yanko W.A. Evaluation of composted sewage sludge based soil amendments for potential risks of salmonellosis. J Environ Health 56 7 (1994) 19-23
199. Slifko T.R., Smith H.V., and Rose J.B. Emerging parasite zoonoses associated with water and food. Int J Parasitol 30 (2000) 1379-1399
200. Smith H.V. Detection of parasites in the environment. Parasitology 117 (1998) S113-S141
201. Smith Jr. J.E., Millner P.D., Jakubowski W., Goldstein N., and Rynk R. Contemporary perspectives on infectious disease agents in sewage sludge and manure (2004), The JG Press, Emmaus, P.A
202. Soares A.C., Gerba C.P., Josephon K.L., and Pepper I.L. Effect of anaerobic digestion on the occurrence of enteroviruses, Giardia cysts and indicator bacteria in sewage sludge. Paper presented at IAWPRC Conference (1992) Washington DC
203. Soares A.C., Straub T.M., Pepper I.L., and Gerba C.P. Effect of anaerobic digestion on the occurrence of enteroviruses and Giardia cysts in sewage sludge. J Environ Sci Health A29 (1994) 1887-1897
204. Sorber C.A., and Moore B.E. Survival and transport of pathogens in sludge-amended soil: a critical literature review. (EPA/600/S2-87/028). US EPA (1987) Cincinnati, Ohio
205. Spillmann S.T., Traub F., Schwyzer M., and Wyler R. Inactivation of animal viruses during sewage sludge treatment. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 53 9 (1987) 2077-2081
206. Stampi S.O., De Luca G., Varoli O., and Zanetti F. Occurrence, removal and seasonal variation of thermophilic Campylobacters and Arcobacter in a sewage sludge. Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed 202 1 (1999) 19-27
207. Stecchini M.L., and Domenis C. Incidence of Aeromonas species in influent and effluent of urban wastewater purification plants. Lett Appl Microbiol 19 (1991) 237-239
208. Steele T.W., Lancer J., and Sangster N. Isolation of Legionella longbeachae serogroup 1 from potting mixes. Appl Environ Microbiol 56 1 (1990) 49-53
209. Stender H., Oliveira K., Rigby S., Bargoot F., and Coull J. Rapid detection, identification, and enumeration of Escherichia coli by fluorescence in situ hybridization using an array scanner. J Microbiol Methods 45 (2001) 31-39
210. Stetler R.E. Coliphages as indicators of enteroviruses. Appl Environ Microbiol 48 3 (1984) 668-670
211. Stinear T., Matusan A., Hines K., and Sandery M. Detection of viable Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in environmental water concentrates by reverse transcription-PCR. Appl Environ Microbiol 9 (1996) 3385-3390
212. Straub T.M., Pepper I.L., and Gerba C.P. Persistence of viruses in desert soils amended with anaerobically digested sewage sludge. Appl Environ Microbiol 58 2 (1992) 636-641
213. Straub T.M., Pepper I.L., and Gerba C.P. Hazards from pathogenic microorganisms in land-disposed sewage sludge. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 132 (1993) 55-91
214. Straub T.M., Pepper I.L., and Gerba C.P. Detection of naturally occurring enteroviruses and hepatitis A virus in undigested and anaerobically digested sludge using the polymerase chain reaction. Can J Microbiol 40 (1994) 884-888
215. Straub T.M., Pepper I.L., and Gerba C.P. Comparison of PCR and cell culture for detection of enteroviruses in sludge-amended field soils and determination of their transport. Appl Environ Microbiol 61 5 (1995) 2066-2068
216. Sturbaum G.D., Ortega Y.R., Gilman R.H., Sterling C.R., Cabrera L., and Klein D.A. Detection of Cyclospora cayetanensis in wastewater. Appl Environ Microbiol 64 6 (1998) 2284-2286
217. Tartera C., and Jofre J. Bacteriophages active against Bactriodes frgilis in sewage-polluted waters. Appl Environ Microbiol 53 7 (1987) 1632-1637
218. Terzieva S.I., and McFeters G.A. Survival and injury of Escherichia coli, Campylobacter jejuni, and Yesrsinia enterocolitica in stream water. Can J Microbiol 37 (1991) 785-790
219. Thompson S.S., Jackson J.L., Suva-Castillo M., Yanko W.A., El Jack Z., Kuo J., et al. Detection of infectious human adenoviruses in tertiary-treated and ultraviolet-disinfected wastewater. Water Environ Res 75 2 (2003) 163-170
220. Traub F., Spilimann S.K., and Wyler R. Method for determining virus inactivation during sludge treatment processes. Appl Environ Microbiol 52 3 (1986) 498-503
221. Tree J.A., Adams M.R., and Lees D.N. Disinfection of feline calicivirus (a surrogate for Norovirus) in wastewater. J Appl Microbiol 98 1 (2005) 155-162
222. Tsai Y.L., and Parker S.L. Quantification of poliovirus in seawater and sewage by competitive reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Can J Microbiol 44 (1998) 35-41
223. US EPA. Announcement of the drinking water contaminant candidate list. Notice 63 40 (1998)
224. US EPA. Control of pathogens and vector attraction in sewage sludge. USEPA Environmental regulations and Technology, Office of Research and Development; 1999. EPA/623/R-92/013, Washington DC.
225. Van den Berg H., Lodder W., van den Poel W., Vennema H., and de Roda Husman A.M. Genetic diversity of Noroviruses in raw and treated sewage water. Res Microbiol 156 (2005) 532-540
226. Vaughn J.M., and Metcalf T.G. Coliphages as indicators of enteric viruses in shellfish raising estuarine waters. Water Res 8 (1974) 613-616
227. Villena C., El-Senousy W.M., Abad F.X., Pinto R.M., and Bosch A. Group A rotavirus in sewage samples from Barcelona and Ciaro: emergence of unusual genotypes. Appl Environ Microbiol 69 7 (2003) 3919-3923
228. Vinje J., Hamidjaja A., and Sobsey M.D. Development and application of a capsid VP1 (region D) based reverse transcription PCR assay for genotyping of genogroup I and II noroviruses. J Virol Methods 116 (2004) 109-117
229. Von Sperlling M., Chernicharo C.A.L., Soares A., and Zerbini A.M. Evaluation and modelling of helminth eggs removal in baffled and unbaffled ponds treating anaerobic effluent. Water Sci Technol 48 2 (2003) 113-120
230. Waage A.S., Vardund T., Lund V., and Kapperud G. Detection of low numbers of pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica in environmental water sewage samples by nested polymerase chain reaction. J Appl Microbiol 87 (1999) 814-821
231. Wallis P.M., Erlandsen S.L., Isaac-Renton J.L., Olson M.E., Robertson W.J., and van Keulen H. Prevalence of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts and characterization of Giardia spp. isolated from drinking water in Canada. Appl Environ Microbiol 62 (1996) 2789-2797
232. Ward R.L., Yeager J.G., and Ashley C.S. Response of bacteria in wastewater sludge to moisture loss by evaporation and effect of moisture content on bacterial inactivation by ionizing radiation. Appl Environ Microbiol 45 (1981) 1123-1127
233. Watanabe H., Kitamura T., Ochi S., and Ozaki M. Inactivation of pathogenic bacteria under mesophilic and thermophilic conditions. Water Sci Technol 36 6-7 (1997) 25-32
234. Wheeler A.L., Hartel P.G., Godfery D.G., Hill J.L., and Segars W.I. Potential of Enterococcus faecalis as a human faecal indicator for microbial source tracking. J Environ Qual 31 (2002) 1286-1293
235. Wilcox M.H., Cook A.M., Eley A., and Spencer R.C. Aeromaonas spp as a potential cause of diarrhoea in children. J Clin Pathol 45 (1992) 959-963
236. Williams Je F.P., and Hurst C.J. Detection of environmental viruses in sludge: enhancement of enterovirus plaques assay titers with 5.ido-2'-deoxiuridine and comparison to adenovirus and coliphage titers. Water Res 22 7 (1988) 847-851
237. Whitmore T.N., and Carrington E.G. Alternative methods for the recovery of Cryptosporidium from water (1992), Foundation for Water Research, Marlow, UK
238. Whitmore T.N., and Robertson L.J. The effect of sewage sludge treatment processes on oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum. J Appl Bacteriol 78 (1995) 34-38
239. Woody M.A., and Clive D.O. Effects of temperature and host cell growth phase on replication of F-specific RNA coliphage Qb. Appl Environ Microbiol 61 4 (1995) 1520-1526
240. Yanko W.A. Occurrence of pathogens in distribution and marketing municipal sludge. US EPA/600/1-37/014 (1988)
241. Yanko W.A. Bacterial pathogens in biosolids-emerging issue. In: Smith Jr. J.E., Millner P.D., Jakubowski W., Goldstein N., and Rynk R. (Eds). Contemporary perspectives on infectious disease agents in sewage sludge and manure (2004), The JG Press, Emmaus, P. A.
242. Yazaki Y., Mizuo H., Takahashi M., Nishizawa T., Sasaki N., Gotanda Y., et al. Sporadic acute or fulminant hepatitis E in Hokkaido, Japan, may be food-borne, as suggested by the presence of hepatitis E virus in pig liver as food. J Gen Virol 84 (2003) 2351-2357
243. Zabranska J., Dohanyos M., Jenicek P., Ruzicikova H., and Vranova A. Efficiency of autothermal thermophilic anaerobic digestion of municipal wastewater sludge in removing Salmonella spp. and indicator bacteria. Water Sci Technol 47 3 (2003) 151-156
244. Zaleski K.J., JL, Gerba C.P., and Pepper I. Potential regrowth and recolonization of Salmonellae and indicators in biosolids and biosolid-amended soil. Appl Environ Microbiol 71 7 (2005) 3701-3708
245. Zhan B., LI T., Xiao X., Zheng F., and Hawdon J.M. Species-specific identification of human hookworm by PCR of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 gene. J Parasitol 87 5 (2001) 1227-1229