Cytokine inhibitors and pain control

Revista Brasileira de Reumatologia

Volumn 47, Issue 5, 2007, Pages 341-353

  Verri Jr , Waldïceu A ^a   Cunha, Thiago M ^a   Poole, Stephen ^b   Ferreira, Seérgio H ^a   Cunha, Fernando Q ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

^b NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR BIOLOGICAL STANDARDS AND CONTROL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Analgesia; Cytokines; Hyperalgesia; Inflammatory pain; Nociception

Indexed keywords

ADALIMUMAB; ATENOLOL; BETAMETHASONE; CYTOKINE; CYTOKINE INDUCED NEUTROPHIL CHEMOATTRACTANT; CYTOKINE INHIBITOR; CYTOKINE RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; DEXAMETHASONE; ETANERCEPT; FREUND ADJUVANT; GLUCOCORTICOID; I KAPPA B KINASE INHIBITOR; ILOPROST; INDOMETACIN; INFLIXIMAB; INTERLEUKIN 15; INTERLEUKIN 18; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; INTERLEUKIN 6; INTERLEUKIN 8; LITHIUM CHLORIDE; PENTOXIFYLLINE; PROTEIN INHIBITOR; RECOMBINANT INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; S 1627; THALIDOMIDE; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA ANTIBODY; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ANTIBODY; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ALLODYNIA; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DRUG ACTIVITY; DRUG COST; DRUG RECEPTOR BINDING; ERYTHEMA NODOSUM LEPROSUM; HEART FAILURE; HUMAN; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; INFECTION; INFLAMMATORY DISEASE; NOCICEPTION; NONHUMAN; PAIN; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; TERATOGENICITY; TUBERCULOSIS; VASCULAR DISEASE;

EID: 51549100217     PISSN: 04825004     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1590/s0482-50042007000500009     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Lynn B: Textbook of pain. 2. ed. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1984.
2. Vane JR: Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis as a mechanism of action for aspirin-like drugs. Nat New Biol 231: 232-5, 1971.
3. Ferreira SH: Prostaglandins, aspirin-like drugs and analgesia. Nat New Biol 240: 200-3, 1972.
4. Ferreira SH, Romitelli M, de Nucci G. Endothelin-1 participation in overt and inflammatory pain. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 13: S220-2, 1989.
5. Zhou QL, Strichartz G, Davar G: Endothelin-1 activates ET(A) receptors to increase intracellular calcium in model sensory neurons. Neuroreport 12: 3853-7, 2001.
6. Nakamura M, Ferreira SH: A peripheral sympathetic component in inflammatory hyperalgesia. Eur J Pharmacol 135: 145-53, 1987.
7. Hannington-Kiff FG: Textbook of pain 3. ed. Edinburg: Churchill Livingstone, 1989.
8. Henry JL: Effects of substance P on functionally identified units in cat spinal cord. Brain Res 114: 439-51, 1976.
9. Nakamura-Craig M, Gill BK: Effect of neurokinin A, substance P and calcitonin gene related peptide in peripheral hyperalgesia in the rat paw. Neurosci Lett 124: 49-51, 1991.
10. Xu XJ, Dalsgaard CJ, Wiesenfeld-Hallin Z: Spinal substance P and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors are coactivated in the induction of central sensitization of the nociceptive flexor reflex. Neuroscience 51: 641-8, 1992.
11. Lewin GR, Mendell LM: Nerve growth factor and nociception. Trends Neurosci 16: 353-9, 1993.
12. Lewin GR, Ritter AM, Mendell LM: Nerve growth factor-induced hyperalgesia in the neonatal and adult rat. J Neurosci 13: 2136-48, 1993.
13. Staszewska-Barczak J, Dusting GJ: Sympathetic cardiovascular reflex initiated by bradykinin-induced stimulation of cardiac pain receptors in the dog. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 4: 443-52, 1977.
14. Verri WA Jr., Cunha TM, Parada CA, et al.: Hypernociceptive role of cytokines and chemokines: Targets for analgesic drug development? Pharmacol Ther 112: 116-38, 2006a.
15. Aggarwal BB, Puri, RK: Human cytokines their role in disease and therapy. 1st ed. Ann Arbour: Blackwell Science, 1995.
16. Vilcek J: The cytokines handbook. 1st ed. London: Academic Press, 2003.
17. Dinarello CA: Proinflammatory cytokines. Chest 118: 503-8, 2000.
18. Hopkins SJ: The pathophysiological role of cytokines. Leg Med 5: S45-57, 2003.
19. Verri WA Jr., Cunha TM, Parada CA, et al.: IL-15 mediates immune inflammatory hypernociception by triggering a sequential release of IFN-gamma, endothelin, and prostaglandin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103: 9721-9725, 2006b.
20. Conti B, Tabarean I, Andrei C, Bartfai T: Cytokines and fever. Front Biosci 9: 1433-49, 2004.
21. Rossi D, Zlotnik A: The biology of chemokines and their receptors. Annu Rev Immunol 18: 217-42, 2000.
22. Ferreira SH, Lorenzetti BB, Bristow AF, Poole S: Interleukin-1 beta as a potent hyperalgesic agent antagonized by a tripeptide analogue. Nature 334: 698-700, 1988.
23. Cunha FQ, Lorenzetti BB, Poole S, Ferreira SH: Interleukin-8 as a mediator of sympathetic pain. Br J Pharmacol 104: 765-7, 1991.
24. Cunha FQ, Poole S, Lorenzetti BB, Ferreira SH: The pivotal role of tumour necrosis factor alpha in the development of inflammatory hyperalgesia. Br J Pharmacol 107: 660-4, 1992.
25. Watkins LR, Wiertelak EP, Goehler LE, et al.: Characterization of cytokine-induced hyperalgesia. Brain Res 654:15-26, 1994.
26. Safieh-Garabedian B, Poole S, Allchorne A, Winter J, Woolf CJ: Contribution of interleukin-1 beta to the inflammation-induced increase in nerve growth factor levels and inflammatory hyperalgesia. Br J Pharmacol 115: 1265-75, 1995.
27. Nicol GD, Lopshire JC, Pafford CM: Tumor necrosis factor enhances the capsaicin sensitivity of rat sensory neurons. J Neurosci 17: 975-82, 1997.
28. Lorenzetti BB, Veiga FH, Canetti CA, et al.: Cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant 1 (CINC-1) mediates the sympathetic component of inflammatory mechanical hypersensitividy in rats. Eur Cytokine Netw 13: 456-61, 2002.
29. Woolf CJ, Allchorne A, Safieh-Garabedian B, Poole S: Cytokines, nerve growth factor and inflammatory hyperalgesia: the contribution of tumour necrosis factor alpha. Br J Pharmacol 121: 417-24, 1997.
30. Cunha TM, Verri WA Jr., Silva JS, et al.: A cascade of cytokines mediates mechanical inflammatory hypernociception in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102: 1755-60, 2005.
31. Verri WA Jr., Schivo IR, Cunha TM, et al.: Interleukin-18 induces mechanical hypernociception in rats via endothelin acting on ETB receptors in a morphine-sensitive manner. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 310: 710-7, 2004.
32. Verri WA Jr., Molina RO, Schivo IR, et al.: Nociceptive effect of subcutaneously injected interleukin-12 is mediated by endothelin (ET) acting on ETB receptors in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 315: 609-15, 2005.
33. Verri WA Jr., Cunha TM, Parada CA, et al.: Antigen-induced inflammatory mechanical hypernociception in mice is mediated by IL-18. Brain Behavior and Immunity 21:535-43, 2007.
34. Dinarello CA: Interleukin 1 as mediator of the acute-phase response. Surv Immunol Res 3: 29-33, 1984.
35. Granstein RD, Margolis P, Mizel SB, Sander DN: In vivo inflammatory activity of epidermal cell-derived thymocyte activating factor and recombinant interleukin 1 in the mouse. J Clin Invest 77: 1020-7, 1986.
36. Dinarello CA: Interleukin-1, interleukin-1 receptors and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist. Int Rev Immunol 16:457-99, 1998.
37. Bernheim, HA, Gilbert TM, Stitt JT: Prostaglandin E levels in third ventricular cerebrospinal fluid of rabbits during fever and changes in body temperature. J Physiol 301: 69-78, 1980.
38. Zucali JR, Dinarello CA, Oblon DJ, et al.: Interleukin 1 stimulates fibroblasts to produce granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating activity and prostaglandin E2. J Clin Invest 77: 1857-63, 1986.
39. Ferreira SH, Nakamura M: I - Prostaglandin hyperalgesia, a cAMP/Ca2+ dependent process. Prostaglandins 18: 179-90, 1979.
40. Handwerker HO: Advances in pain research and therapy. 1st ed. New York: Raven Press, 1976.
41. Davis AJ, Perkins MN: The involvement of bradykinin B1 and B2 receptor mechanisms in cytokine-induced mechanical hyperalgesia in the rat. Br J Pharmacol 113: 63-8, 1994.
42. Beutler B, Cerami A: Tumor necrosis, cachexia, shock, and inflammation: a common mediator. Annu Rev Biochem 57: 505-18, 1988.
43. Tartaglia LA, Goeddel DV: Two TNF receptors. Immunol Today 13: 151-3, 1992.
44. Ware CF: Network communications: lymphotoxins, LIGHT, and TNF. Annu Rev Immunol 23: 787-819, 2005.
45. Poole S, Cunha FQ, Selkirk S, Lorenzetti BB, Ferreira SH: Cytokine-mediated inflammatory hyperalgesia limited by interleukin-10. Br J Pharmacol 115: 684-8, 1995.
46. Cunha FQ, Poole S, Lorenzetti BB, Veiga FH, Ferreira SH: Cytokine-mediated inflammatory hyperalgesia limited by interleukin-4. Br J Pharmacol 126: 45-50, 1999.
47. Cunha JM, Cunha FQ, Poole S, Ferreira SH: Cytokine-mediated inflammatory hyperalgesia limited by interleukin-1 receptor antagonist. Br J Pharmacol 130: 1418-24, 2000.
48. Ribeiro RA, Vale ML, Ferreira SH, Cunha FQ: Analgesic effect of thalidomide on inflammatory pain. Eur J Pharmacol 391: 97-103, 2000.
49. Cunha JM, Rae GA, Ferrreira, SH, Cunha, FQ: Endothelins induce ETB receptor-mediated mechanical hypernociception in rat hindpaw: roles of cAMP and protein kinase C. Eur J Pharmacol 501: 87-94, 2004.
50. Vale ML, Benevides VM, Sachs D, et al.: Antihyperalgesic effect of pentoxifylline on experimental inflammatory pain. Br J Pharmacol 143: 833-44, 2004.
51. Rankin EC, Choy EH, Kassimos D, et al.: The therapeutic effects of an engineered human anti-tumour necrosis factor alpha antibody (CDP571) in rheumatoid arthritis. Br J Rheumatol 34: 334-42, 1995.
52. Schafers M, Sorkin LS, Sommer C: Intramuscular injection of tumor necrosis factor-alpha induces muscle hyperalgesia in rats. Pain 104: 579-88, 2003.
53. Onda A, Yabuki S, Kikuchi S: Effects of neutralizing antibodies to tumor necrosis factor-alpha on nucleus pulposus-induced abnormal nociresponses in rat dorsal horn neurons. Spine 28: 967-72, 2003.
54. Nordahl S, Alstergren P, Kopp S: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha in synovial fluid and plasma from patients with chronic connective tissue disease and its relation to temporomandibular joint pain. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 58: 525-30, 2000.
55. den Broeder AA, de Jong E, Franssen MJ, et al.: Observational study on efficacy, safety, and drug survival of anakinra in rheumatoid arthritis patients in clinical practice. Ann Rheum Dis 65: 760-2, 2006.
56. Vila AT, Puig L, Fernandez-Figueras MT, et al.: Adverse cutaneous reactions to anakinra in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: clinicopathological study of five patients. Br J Dermatol 153: 417-23, 2005.
57. Smith JA, Thompson DJ, Whitcup SM, et al.: A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-masked clinical trial of etanercept for the treatment of uveitis associated with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 53: 18-23, 2005.
58. Tobin AM, Kirby B: TNF alpha inhibitors in the treatment of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis. BioDrugs 19: 47-57, 2005.
59. Murray KM, Dahl SL: Recombinant human tumor necrosis factor receptor (p75) Fc fusion protein (TNFR:Fc) in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Pharmacother 31: 1335-8, 1997.
60. Weinblatt ME, Kremer JM, Bankhurst AD, et al.: A trial of etanercept, a recombinant tumor necrosis factor receptor:Fc fusion protein, in patients with rheumatoid arthritis receiving methotrexate. N Engl J Med 340: 253-9, 1999.
61. Moreland LW: The role of cytokines in rheumatoid arthritis: inhibition of cytokines in therapeutic trials. Drugs Today 35: 309-19, 1999.
62. Haraoui B: The anti-tumor necrosis factor agents are a major advance in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 72: 46-47, 2005.
63. Sommer C, Lindenlaub T, Teuteberg P, et al.: Anti-TNF-neutralizing antibodies reduce pain-related behavior in two different mouse models of painful mononeuropathy. Brain Res 913: 86-9, 2001a.
64. Sommer C, Schafers M, Marziniak M, Toyka KV: Etanercept reduces hyperalgesia in experimental painful neuropathy. J Peripher Nerv Syst 6: 67-72, 2001b.
65. Inglis JJ, Nissim A, Lees DM, et al.: The differential contribution of tumour necrosis factor to thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia during chronic inflammation. Arthritis Res Ther 7: R807-16, 2005.
66. Maini RN, Breedveld FC, Kalden JR, et al.: Therapeutic efficacy of multiple intravenous infusions of anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha monoclonal antibody combined with low-dose weekly methotrexate in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 41: 1552-63, 1998.
67. Bickston SJ, Lichtenstein GR, Arseneau KO, Cohen RB, Cominelli F: The relationship between infliximab treatment and lymphoma in Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 117: 1433-7, 1999.
68. Cush JJ: Unusual toxicities with TNF inhibition: heart failure and drug-induced lupus. Clin Exp Rheumatol 22: S141-7, 2004.
69. Fehniger TA, Caligiuri MA: Interleukin 15: biology and relevance to human disease. Blood 97: 14-32, 2001.
70. Brombacher F, Kastelein RA, Alber G: Novel IL-12 family members shed light on the orchestration of Th1 responses. Trends Immunol 24: 207-12, 2003.
71. Strengell M, Matikainen S, Siren J, et al.: IL-21 in synergy with IL-15 or IL-18 enhances IFN-gamma production in human NK and T cells. J Immunol 170: 5464-9, 2003.
72. Cunha JM, Sachs D, Canetti CA, et al.: The critical role of leukotriene B4 in antigen-induced mechanical hyperalgesia in immunised rats. Br J Pharmacol 139:1135-45, 2003.
73. Watford WT, Hissong BD, Bream JH, et al.: Signaling byIL-12 and IL-2 3 and the immunoregulatory roles of STAT4. Immunol Rev 202: 139-56, 2004.
74. Nakanishi Y, Yoshimoto T, Tsutsui H, Okamura H: Interleukia-18 is a unique cytokine that stimulates both Th1 and Th2 responses depending on its cytokine milieu. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 12: 53-72, 2001.
75. Ruchatz H, Leung BP, Wei XQ, McInnes IB, Liew FY: Soluble IL-15 receptor alpha-chain administration prevents murine collagen-induced arthritis: a role for IL-15 in development of antigen-induced immunopathology. J Immunol 160: 5654-60, 1998.
76. Gracie JA, Forsey RJ, Chan WL, et al.: A proinflammatory role for IL-18 in rheumatoid arthritis. J Clin Invest 104: 1393-401, 1999.
77. Wei XQ, Leung BP, Arthur HM, McInnes IB, Liew FY: Reduced incidence and severity of collagen-induced arthritis in mice lacking IL-18. J Immunol 166: 517-21, 2001.
78. Baslund B, Tvede N, Danneskiold-Samsoe B, et al.: Targeting interleukin-15 in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a proof-of-concept study. Arthritis Rheum 52: 2686-92, 2005.
79. Leung BP, McInnes IB, Esfandiari E, Wei XQ, Liew FY: Combined effects of IL-12 and IL-18 on the induction of collagen-induced arthritis. J Immunol 164: 6495-502, 2000.
80. Sorkin LS, Xiao WH, Wagner R, Myers RR: Tumour necrosis factor-alpha induces ectopic activity in nociceptive primary afferent fibres. Neuroscience 81: 255-62, 1997.
81. Junger H, Sorkin LS: Nociceptive and inflammatory effects of subcutaneous TNFalpha. Pain 85: 145-51, 2000.
82. Jin X, Gereau RW: Acute p38-mediated modulation of tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium channels in mouse sensory neurons by tumor necrosis factor-alpha. J Neurosci 26: 246-55, 2006.
83. Obreja O, Rathee PK, Lips KS, Distler C, Kress M: IL-1 beta potentiates heat-activated currents in rat sensory neurons: involvement of IL-1RI, tyrosine kinase, and protein kinase C. Faseb J 16: 1497-03, 2002.
84. Obreja O, Biasio W, Andratsch M, et al.: Fast modulation of heat-activated ionic current by proinflammatory interleukin 6 in rat sensory neurons. Brain 128: 1634-41, 2005.
85. Zhang N, Inan S, Cowan A, et al.: A proinflammatory chemokine, CCL3, sensitizes the heat- and capsaicin-gated ion channel TRPV1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102: 4536-41, 2005.
86. Parada CA, Yeh JJ, Joseph EK, Levine JD: Tumor necrosis factor receptor type-1 in sensory neurons contributes to induction of chronic enhancement of inflammatory hyperalgesia in rat. Eur J Neurosci 17: 1847-52, 2003.
87. Ferreira SH, Lorenzetti BB, De Campos DI: Induction, blockade and restoration of a persistent hypersensitive state. Pain 42: 365-71, 1990.
88. Covey WC, Ignatowski TA, Knight PR, Spengler RN: Brain-derived TNFalpha: involvement in neuroplastic changes implicated in the conscious perception of persistent pain. Brain Res 859:113-22, 2000.
89. Sachs D, Cunha FQ, Poole S, Ferreira SH: Tumour necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1beta and interleukin-8 induce persistent mechanical nociceptor hypersensitivity. Pain 96: 89-97, 2002.
90. Aley KO, Messing RO, Mochly-Rosen D, Levine JD: Chronic hypersensitivity for inflammatory nociceptor sensitization mediated by the epsilon isozyme of protein kinase C. J Neurosci 20: 4680-5, 2000.
91. Parada CA, Reichling DB, Levine JD: Chronic hyperalgesic priming in the rat involves a novel interaction between cAMP and PKCepsilon second messenger pathways. Pain 113: 185-90, 2005.
92. Sen R, Baltimore D: Inducibility of kappa immunoglobulin enhancer-binding protein Nf-kappa B by a posttranslational mechanism. Cell 47: 921-8, 1986.
93. Li Q, Verma IM: NF-kappaB regulation in the immune system. Nat Rev Immunol 2: 725-34, 2002.
94. Goulding NJ: Corticosteroids - a case of mistaken identity? British Journal of Rheumatology 37: 477-80, 1998.
95. Ferreira SH, Cunha FQ, Lorenzetti BB, et al.: Role of lipocortin-1 in the anti-hyperalgesic actions of dexamethasone. Br J Pharmacol 121: 883-8, 1997.
96. Campos MM, Mata LV, Calixto JB: Expression of B1 kinin receptors mediating paw edema and formalin-induced nociception. Modulation by glucocorticoids. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 73: 812-81, 1995.
97. Xie W, Liu X, Xuan H, Luo S, Zhao X, Zhou Z, Xu J: Effect of betamethasone on neuropathic pain and cerebral expression of NF-kappaB and cytokines. Neurosci Lett 393: 255-9, 1996.
98. Mousa S, Miller CH Jr, Couri D: Corticosteroid modulation and stress-induced analgesia in rats. Neuroendocrinology 33: 317-9, 1981.
99. Zhang RX, Lao L, Qiao JT, Malsnee K, Ruda MA: Endogenous and exogenous glucocorticoid suppresses up-regulation of preprodynorphin mRNA and hyperalgesia in rats with peripheral inflammation. Neuroscience Letters 359: 85-8, 2004.
100. Tegeder I, Niederberger E, Schmidt R, et al.: Specific Inhibition of IkappaB kinase reduces hyperalgesia in inflammatory and neuropathic pain models in rats. J Neurosci 24: 1637-45, 2004.
101. Sarno EN, Grau GE, Vieira LM, Nery JA: Serum levels of tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1 beta during leprosy reactional states. Clin Exp Immunol 84: 103-8, 1991.
102. Tavares JL, Wangoo A, Dilworth P, Marshall B, Kotecha S, Shaw RJ: Thalidomide reduces tumour necrosis factor-alpha production by human alveolar macrophages. Respir Med 91: 31-9, 1997.
103. Sampaio EP, Sarno EN, Galilly R, Cohn ZA, Kaplan G: Thalidomide selectively inhibits tumor necrosis factor alpha production by stimulated human monocytes. The Journal of Experimental Medicine 173: 699-703, 1991.
104. Moreira AL, Sampaio EP, Zmuidzinas A, Frindt P, Smith KA, Kaplan G: Thalidomide exerts its inhibitory action on tumor necrosis factor alpha by enhancing mRNA degradation. The Journal of Experimental Medicine 177: 1675-80, 1993.
105. Vogelsang GB, Farmer ER, Hess AD, et al.: Thalidomide for the treatment of chronic graft-versus-host disease. N Engl J Med 326: 1055-8, 1992.
106. Jacobson JM, Greenspan JS, Spritzler J, et al.: Thalidomide for the treatment of oral aphthous ulcers in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med 336: 1487-93, 1997.
107. Gutierrez-Rodriguez O, Starusta-Bacal P, Gutierrez-Montes O: Treatment of refractory rheumatoid arthritis the thalidomide experience. J Rheumatol 16: 158-63, 1989.
108. Bombini G, Canetti C, Rocha FA, Cunha FQ: Tumour necrosis factor-alpha mediates neutrophil migration to the knee synovial cavity during immune inflammation. Eur J Pharmacol 496: 197-204, 2004.
109. Sommer C, Schmidt C, George A: Hyperalgesia in experimental neuropathy is dependent on the TNF receptor 1. Exp Neurol 151: 138-42, 1998.
110. Strieter RM, Remick DG, Ward PA, et al.: Cellular and molecular regulation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha production by pentoxifylline. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 155: 1230-6, 1988.
111. Doherty GM, Jensen JC, Alexander HR, Buresh CM, Norton JA: Pentoxifylline suppression of tumor necrosis factor gene transcription. Surgery 110: 192-8, 1991.
112. Sampaio EP, Moraes MO, Nery JA, Santos AR, Matos HC, Sarno EM: Pentoxifylline decreases in vivo and in vitro tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) production in lepromatous leprosy patients with erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL). Clin Exp Immunol 111: 300-8, 1998.
113. Funk JO, Ernst M, Schonharting MM, Zabel P: Pentoxifylline exerts synergistic immunomodulatory effects in combination with dexamethasone or cyclosporin A. Int J Immunopharmacol 17: 1007-16, 1995.
114. Weinberg JB, Mason SN, Wortham TS: Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) messenger RNA (mRNA) expression in HL-60 leukemia cells by pentoxifylline and dexamethasone: dissociation of acivicin-induced TNF-alpha and IL-1 beta mRNA expression from acivicin-induced monocytoid differentiation. Blood 79: 3337-43, 1992.
115. Tilg H, Eibl B, Pichl M, et al.: Immune response modulation by pentoxifylline in vitro. Transplantation 56: 196-201, 1993.
116. Koo DJ, Yoo P, Cioffi WG, Bland KI, Chaudry IH, Wang P: Mechanism of the beneficial effects of pentoxifylline during sepsis: maintenance of adrenomedullin responsiveness and downregulation of proinflammatory cytokines. J Surg Res 91: 70-6, 2000.
117. Marcinkiewicz J, Grabowska A, Lauterbach R, Bobek M: Differential effects of pentoxifylline, a non-specific phosphodiesterase inhibitor, on the production of IL-10, IL-12 p40 and p35 subunits by murine peritoneal macrophages. Immunopharmacology 49: 335-43, 2000.
118. Chen YM, Ng YY, Lin SL, Chiang WC, Lan HY, Tsai TJ: Pentoxifylline suppresses renal tumour necrosis factor-alpha and ameliorates experimental crescentic glomerulonephritis in rats. Nephrol Dial Transplant 19: 1106-15, 2004.
119. Gunduz Z, Canoz O, Per H, et al.: The effects of pentoxifylline on diabetic renal changes in streptozotocin-induced diabetes mellitus. Ren Fail 26: 597-605, 2004.
120. Schade UF: Pentoxifylline increases survival in murine endotoxin shock and decreases formation of tumor necrosis factor. Circ Shock 31: 171-81, 1990.
121. Szczepanik AM, Wordliczek J, Serednicki W, Siedlar M, Czupryna A: Pentoxifylline does not affect nociception if administered postoperatively. Pol J Pharmacol 56: 611-6, 2004.
122. Wordliczek J, Szczepanik AM, Banach M, et al.: The effect of pentoxifiline on post-injury hyperalgesia in rats and postoperative pain in patients. Life Sci 66: 1155-64, 2000.
123. Biswas DK, Ahlers CM, Dezube BJ, Pardee AB: Pentoxifylline and other protein kinase C inhibitors down-regulate HIV-LTR NF-kappa B induced gene expression. Mol Med 1: 31-43, 1994.
124. Ji Q, Zhang L, Jia H, Xu J: Pentoxifylline inhibits endotoxininduced NF-kappa B activation and associated production of proinflammatory cytokines. Ann Clin Lab Sci 34: 427-36, 2004.
125. Lynn, B, O'Shea, NR: Inhibition of forskolin-induced sensitisation of frog skin nociceptors by the cyclic AMPdependent protein kinase A antagonist H-89. Brain Research 780: 360-2, 1998.
126. Aley KO, Levine JD: Role of protein kinase A in the maintenance of inflammatory pain. J Neurosci 19: 2181-6, 1999.