New developments for the pharmacological treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. A focus on non-benzodiazepine GABAergic medications

Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry

Volumn 32, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 1106-1117

  Leggio, Lorenzo ^a   Kenna, George A ^a   Swift, Robert M ^a  

^a BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Alcohol dependence; Alcohol withdrawal syndrome; GABA system; GABAergic medications; Non benzodiazepine

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID; 4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID B RECEPTOR; 4 HYDROXYBUTYRIC ACID; ACETYLCHOLINE; ADENOSINE; BACLOFEN; CARBAMAZEPINE; CLOMETHIAZOLE; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; DIAZEPAM; DOPAMINE; FLUMAZENIL; GABAPENTIN; GLUTAMIC ACID; LORAZEPAM; NORADRENALIN; OXAZEPAM; OXCARBAZEPINE; OXYBATE SODIUM; PHENOBARBITAL; PLACEBO; SEROTONIN; TIAGABINE; TOPIRAMATE; VALPROATE SEMISODIUM; VALPROIC ACID; VIGABATRIN;

ABSTINENCE; AGRANULOCYTOSIS; ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL; ALCOHOLISM; AMINOTRANSFERASE BLOOD LEVEL; APLASTIC ANEMIA; CONFUSION; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; DIPLOPIA; DISEASE SEVERITY; DIZZINESS; DRUG MECHANISM; DYSPEPSIA; GABAERGIC SYSTEM; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HUMAN; HYPERHIDROSIS; MEMORY DISORDER; NAUSEA; NEUROBIOLOGY; NEUROMODULATION; NEUROPHARMACOLOGY; ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRURITUS; RASH; REVIEW; SEDATION; SEIZURE; SIDE EFFECT; SOMNOLENCE; STOMACH DISCOMFORT; STOMACH PAIN; TREMOR; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; VERTIGO; VOMITING; XEROSTOMIA;

ALCOHOL-INDUCED DISORDERS; ANIMALS; BENZODIAZEPINES; GABA AGENTS; HUMANS; SUBSTANCE WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME;

EID: 49849087800     PISSN: 02785846     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2007.09.021     Document Type: Review

References (154)

1. Addolorato G., Abenavoli L., Leggio L., and Gasbarrini G. How many cravings? Pharmacological aspects of craving treatment in alcohol addiction: a review. Neuropsychobiology 51 (2005) 59-66
2. Addolorato G., Balducci G., Capristo E., Attilia M.L., Taggi F., Gasbarrini G., et al. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome: a randomized comparative study versus benzodiazepine. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 23 (1999) 1596-1604
3. Addolorato G., Caputo F., Capristo E., Domenicali M., Bernardi M., Janiri L., et al. Baclofen efficacy in reducing alcohol craving and intake: a preliminary double-blind randomized controlled study. Alcohol Alcohol 37 (2002) 504-508
4. Addolorato G., Caputo F., Capristo E., Janiri L., Bernardi M., Agabio R., et al. Rapid suppression of alcohol withdrawal syndrome by baclofen. Am J Med 112 (2002) 226-229
5. Addolorato G., Caputo F., Capristo E., Stefanini G.F., and Gasbarrini G. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid efficacy, potential abuse, and dependence in the treatment of alcohol addiction. Alcohol 20 (2000) 217-222
6. Addolorato G., and Gasbarrini G. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid. N Engl J Med 353 (2005) 1632-1633
7. Addolorato G., Leggio L., Abenavoli L., Agabio R., Caputo F., Capristo E., et al. Baclofen in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome: a comparative study vs diazepam. Am J Med 119 (2006) 276.e13-276.e18
8. Addolorato G., Leggio L., Abenavoli L., DeLorenzi G., Parente A., Caputo F., et al. Suppression of alcohol delirium tremens by baclofen administration: a case report. Clin Neuropharmacol 26 (2003) 258-262
9. Addolorato G., Leggio L., Abenavoli L., Gasbarrini G., and Alcoholism Treatment Study Group. Neurobiochemical and clinical aspects of craving in alcohol addiction: a review. Addict Behav 30 (2005) 1209-1224
10. Addolorato G., Leggio L., Abenavoli L., Gasbarrini G., Caputo F., Vignoli T., et al. Gamma hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) withdrawal does not occur at therapeutic dosage. Drug Alcohol Depend 77 (2005) 209
11. Addolorato G., Leggio L., Agabio R., Colombo G., and Gasbarrini G. Baclofen: a new drug for the treatment of alcohol dependence. Int J Clin Pract 60 (2006) 1003-1008
12. Agabio R., Colombo G., Loche A., Lobina C., Pani L., Reali R., et al. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid reducing effect on ethanol intake: evidence in favour of a substitution mechanism. Alcohol Alcohol 33 (1998) 465-474
13. Agricola R., Mazzarino M., Urani R., Gallo V., and Grossi E. Treatment of acute alcohol withdrawal syndrome with carbamazepine: a double-blind comparison with tiapride. J Int Med Res 10 (1982) 160-165
14. Ahboucha S., and Butterworth R.F. Pathophysiology of hepatic encephalopathy: a new look at GABA from the molecular standpoint. Metab Brain Dis 19 (2004) 331-343
15. Ait-Daoud N., Malcolm Jr. R.J., and Johnson B.A. An overview of medications for the treatment of alcohol withdrawal and alcohol dependence with an emphasis on the use of older and newer anticonvulsants. Addict Behav 31 (2006) 1628-1649
16. Ananth J., Swartz R., Burgoyne K., and Gadasally R. Hepatic disease and psychiatric illness: relationships and treatment. Psychother Psychosom 62 (1994) 146-159
17. Armijo J.A., Shushtarian M., Valdizan E.M., Cuadrado A., and Adin J. Ion channels and epilepsy. Curr Pharm Des 11 (2005) 1975-2003
18. Bailey C.P., Molleman A., and Little H.J. Comparison of the effects of drugs on hyperexcitability induced in hippocampal slices by withdrawal from chronic ethanol consumption. Br J Pharmacol 123 (1998) 215-222
19. Ballenger J.C., and Post R.M. Kindling as a model for alcohol withdrawal syndromes. Br J Psychiatry 133 (1978) 1-14
20. Bayard M., McIntyre J., Hill K.R., and Woodside Jr. J. Alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Am Fam Physician 69 (2004) 1443-1450
21. Becker H.C., and Littleton J.M. The alcohol withdrawal "kindling" phenomenon: clinical and experimental findings. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20 (1996) 121A-124A
22. Bjorkqvist S.E., Isohanni M., Makela R., and Malinen L. Ambulant treatment of alcohol withdrawal symptoms with carbamazepine: a formal multicentre double-blind comparison with placebo. Acta Psychiatr Scand 53 (1976) 333-342
23. Blondell R.D. Ambulatory detoxification of patients with alcohol dependence. Am Fam Phys 71 (2005) 495-502
24. Bonnet U., Banger M., Leweke F.M., Maschke M., Kowalski T., Gastpar M., et al. Treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome with gabapentin. Pharmacopsychiatry 32 (1999) 107-109
25. Bonnet U., Banger M., Leweke F.M., Specka M., Muller B.W., Hashemi T., et al. Treatment of acute alcohol withdrawal with gabapentin: results from a controlled two-center trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol 23 (2003) 514-519
26. Book S.W., and Myrick H. Novel anticonvulsants in the treatment of alcoholism. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 14 (2005) 371-376
27. Bozikas V., Petrikis P., Gamvrula K., Savvidou I., and Karavatos A. Treatment of alcohol withdrawal with gabapentin. Prog Neuro-psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 26 (2002) 197-199
28. Cagetti E., Baicy K.J., and Olsen R.W. Topiramate attenuates withdrawal signs after chronic intermittent ethanol in rats. Neuroreport 15 (2004) 207-210
29. Caputo F, Addolorato G, Stoppo M, Francini S, Vignoli T, Lorenzini F, et al. Comparing and combining gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) and naltrexone in maintaining abstinence from alcohol: an open randomised comparative study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol in press.
30. Carta M., Olivera D.S., Dettmer T.S., and Valenzuela C.F. Ethanol withdrawal upregulates kainate receptors in cultured rat hippocampal neurons. Neurosci Lett 327 (2002) 128-132
31. Charney D.S., Mihic S.J., and Harris R.A. Hypnotics and sedatives. In: Gilman A. (Ed). Goodman & Gilman's the pharmacologic basis of therapeutics. Tenth ed (2001), McGraw Hill, New York 399-429
32. Chastain G. Alcohol, neurotransmitter systems, and behavior. J Gen Psych 133 (2006) 329-335
33. Choi E.A., Ki S.W., Kim S.E., Kim J.W., and Park J.K. The efficacy and safety of topiramate in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal. J Korean Neuropsychiatr Assoc 44 (2005) 328-333
34. Chu N.S. Carbamazepine: prevention of alcohol withdrawal seizures. Neurology 29 (1979) 1397-1401
35. Ciraulo D.A., Sands B.F., and Shader I R.I. Critical review of liability for benzodiazepine abuse among alcoholics. Am J Psychiatry 145 (1988) 1501-1506
36. Colombo G., Agabio R., Carai M.A., Lobina C., Pani M., Reali R., et al. Ability of baclofen in reducing alcohol intake and withdrawal severity: I-preclinical evidence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 24 (2000) 58-66
37. Croissant B., Scherle T., Diehl A., Heinz A., and Mann K. Oxcarbazepine in alcohol relapse prevention-a case series. Pharmacopsychiatry 37 (2004) 306-307
38. Davidoff R.A. Antispasticity drugs: mechanisms of action. Ann Neurol 17 (1985) 107-116
39. De Witte P., Pinto E., Ansseau M., and Verbanck P. Alcohol and withdrawal: from animal research to clinical issues. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 27 (2003) 189-197
40. Diana M., Pistis M., Muntoni A., and Gessa G. Mesolimbic dopaminergic reduction outlasts ethanol withdrawal syndrome: evidence of protracted abstinence. Neuroscience 71 (1996) 411-415
41. Fiellin D.A., O'Connor P.G., Holmboe E.S., and Horwitz R.I. Risk for delirium tremens in patients with alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Subst Abuse 23 (2002) 83-94
42. Finn D.A., and Crabbe J.C. Exploring alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Alcohol Health Res World 21 (1997) 149-156
43. Flannery B.A., Garbutt J.C., Cody M.W., Renn W., Grace K., Osborne M., et al. Baclofen for alcohol dependence: a preliminary open-label study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 28 (2004) 1517-1523
44. Flygenring J., Hansen J., Holst B., Petersen E., and Sorensen A. Treatment of alcohol withdrawal symptoms in hospitalized patients. A randomized, double-blind comparison of carbamazepine (Tegretol) and barbital (Diemal). Acta Psychiatr Scand 69 (1984) 398-408
45. Franz M., Dlabal H., Kunz S., Uerts J., Gruppe H., Gallhofer B., et al. Treatment of alcohol withdrawal: tiapride and carbamazepine versus clomethiazole. A pilot study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 251 (2001) 185-192
46. Gallimberti L., Canton G., Gentile N., Ferri M., Cibin M., Ferrara S.D., et al. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid for treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Lancet 2 8666 (1989) 787-789
47. Gerra G., Caccavari R., Volpi R., Maninetti L., Delsignore R.M., Coiro V., et al. Effectiveness of flumazenil in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Curr Ther Res 50 (1991) 62-66
48. Gessa G.L., Agabio R., Carai M., Lobina C., Pani M., Reali R., et al. Mechanism of the anti-alcohol effect of gamma hydroxybutyric acid (GHB). Alcohol 20 (2000) 271-276
49. Glauser T.A. Oxcarbazepine in the treatment of epilepsy. Pharmacotherapy 21 (2001) 904-919
50. Goldstein D.B. Sodium bromide and sodium valproate: effective suppressants of ethanol withdrawal reactions in mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 208 (1979) 223-227
51. Hall W., and Zador D.Z. The alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Lancet 349 (1997) 1897-1900
52. Haugbol S.R., Ebert B., and Ulrichsen J. Upregulation of glutamate receptor subtypes during alcohol withdrawal in rats. Alcohol Alcohol 40 (2005) 89-95
53. Hillbom M., Tokola R., Kuusela V., Karkkainen P., Kalli-Lemma L., Pilke A., et al. Prevention of alcohol withdrawal seizures with carbamazepine and valproic acid. Alcohol 6 (1989) 223-226
54. Jaffe J.H., Ciraulo D.A., Nies A., Dixon R.B., and Monroe L.L. Abuse potential of halazepram and diazepam in patients recently treated for acute alcohol withdrawal. Clin Pharmacol Ther 34 (1983) 623-630
55. Janiri L., Martinotti G., Dario T., Reina D., Paparello F., Pozzi G., et al. Anhedonia and substance-related symptoms in detoxified substance-dependent subjects: a correlation study. Neuropsychobiology 52 (2005) 37-44
56. Johnson B.A. An overview of the development of medications including novel anticonvulsants for the treatment of alcohol dependence. Expert Opin Pharmacother 5 (2004) 1943-1955
57. Johnson B.A., Swift R.M., Addolorato G., Ciraulo D.A., and Myrick H. Safety and efficacy of GABAergic medications for treating alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 29 (2005) 248-254
58. Karam-Hage M., and Brower K.J. Gabapentin treatment for insomnia associated with alcohol dependence. Am J Psychiatry 157 (2000) 151
59. Karam-Hage M., and Brower K.J. Open pilot study of gabapentin versus trazodone to treat insomnia in alcoholic outpatients. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 57 (2003) 542-544
60. Karst M., Passie T., Friedrich S., Wiese B., and Schneider U. Acupuncture in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal symptoms: a randomized, placebo-controlled inpatient study. Addict Biol 7 (2002) 415-419
61. Keck Jr. P.E., and McElroy S.L. Clinical pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of antimanic and mood-stabilizing medications. J Clin Psychiatry 63 Suppl 4 (2002) 3-11
62. Keck Jr. P.E., McElroy S.L., and Friedman L.M. Valproate and carbamazepine in the treatment of panic and posttraumatic stress disorders, withdrawal states, and behavioral dyscontrol syndromes. J Clin Psychopharmacol 12 1 Suppl (1992) 36S-41S
63. Kenna G.A., Nielsen D.M., Mello P., Schiesl A., and Swift R.M. Pharmacotherapy of dual substance abuse and dependence. CNS Drugs 21 (2007) 213-237
64. Knapp D.J., Overstreet D.H., and Breese G.R. Modulation of ethanol withdrawal-induced anxiety-like behavior during later withdrawals by treatment of early withdrawals with benzodiazepine/gamma-aminobutyric acid ligands. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 29 (2005) 553-563
65. Knapp D.J., Overstreet D.H., and Breese G.R. Baclofen blocks expression and sensitization of anxiety-like behavior in an animal model of repeated stress and ethanol withdrawal. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 31 (2007) 582-595
66. Koethe D., Juelicher A., Nolden B.M., Braunwarth W.D., Klosterkotter J., Niklewski G., et al. Oxcarbazepine-efficacy and tolerability during treatment of alcohol withdrawal: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled multicenter pilot study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 31 (2007) 1188-1194
67. Koob G.F. A role for GABA mechanisms in the motivational effects of alcohol. Biochem Pharmacol 68 (2004) 1515-1525
68. Koob G.F., and Le Moal M. Drug abuse: hedonic homeostatic dysregulation. Science 278 (1997) 52-58
69. Korninger C., Roller R.E., and Lesch O.M. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome in patients admitted to hospital. Acta Med Austriaca 30 (2003) 83-86
70. Kosten T.R., and O'Connor P.G. Management of drug and alcohol withdrawal. N Engl J Med 348 (2003) 1786-1795
71. Kranzler H.R. Evaluation and treatment of anxiety symptoms and disorders in alcoholics. J Clin Psychiatry 57 Suppl 7 (1996) 15-21 discussion 22-4
72. Krupitsky E.M., Rudenko A.A., Burakov A.M., Slavina T.Y., Grinenko A.A., Pittman B., et al. Antiglutamatergic strategies for ethanol detoxification: comparison with placebo and diazepam. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 31 (2007) 604-611
73. Lambie D.G., Johnson R.H., Vijayasenan M.E., and Whiteside E.A. Sodium valproate in the treatment of the alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 14 (1980) 213-215
74. Lejoyeux M., Solomon J., and Adès J. Benzodiazepine treatment for alcohol-dependent patients. Alcohol Alcohol 33 (1998) 563-575
75. Lerner W.D., and Fallon H.J. The alcohol withdrawal syndrome. N Engl J Med 313 (1985) 951-952
76. Littleton J. Neurochemical mechanisms underlying alcohol withdrawal. Alcohol Health Res World 22 (1998) 13-24
77. Longo L.P., Campbell T., and Hubatch S. Divalproex sodium (Depakote) for alcohol withdrawal and relapse prevention. J Addict Dis 21 (2002) 55-64
78. Loscher W. Basic pharmacology of valproate: a review after 35 years of clinical use for the treatment of epilepsy. CNS Drugs 16 (2002) 669-694
79. Lu B.Y., Coberly R., and Bogenschutz M. Use of oxcarbazepine in outpatient alcohol detoxification. Am J Addict 14 (2005) 191-192
80. Lucht M., Kuehn K.U., Armbruster J., Abraham G., Gaensicke M., Barnow S., et al. Alcohol withdrawal treatment in intoxicated vs non-intoxicated patients: a controlled open-label study with tiapride/carbamazepine, clomethiazole and diazepam. Alcohol Alcohol 38 (2003) 168-175
81. Malcolm R.J. GABA systems, benzodiazepines, and substance dependence. J Clin Psychiatry 64 Suppl 3 (2003) 36-40
82. Malcolm R., Ballenger J.C., Sturgis E.T., and Anton R. Double-blind controlled trial comparing carbamazepine to oxazepam treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Am J Psychiatry 146 (1989) 617-621
83. Malcolm R., Myrick H., Brady K.T., and Ballenger J.C. Update on anticonvulsants for the treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Am J Addict 10 Suppl (2001) 16-23
84. Malcolm R., Myrick H., Roberts J., Wang W., and Anton R.F. The differential effects of medication on mood, sleep disturbance, and work ability in outpatient alcohol detoxification. Am J Addict 11 (2002) 141-150
85. Malcolm R., Myrick H., Roberts J., Wang W., Anton R.F., Ballenger J.C., et al. The effects of carbamazepine and lorazepam on single versus multiple previous alcohol withdrawals in an outpatient randomized trial. J Gen Intern Med 17 (2002) 349-355
86. Malcolm R., Myrick H.L., Veatch L.M., Boyle E., and Randall P.K. Self-reported sleep, sleepiness, and repeated alcohol withdrawals: a randomized, double blind, controlled comparison of lorazepam vs gabapentin. J Clin Sleep Med 3 (2007) 24-32
87. Malcolm R., Roberts J.S., Wang W., Myrick H., and Anton R.F. Multiple previous detoxifications are associated with less responsive treatment and heavier drinking during an index outpatient detoxification. Alcohol 22 (2000) 159-164
88. Mariani J.J., Rosenthal R.N., Tross S., Singh P., and Anand O.P. A randomized, open-label, controlled trial of gabapentin and phenobarbital in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Am J Addict 15 (2006) 76-84
89. Martinotti G., Di Nicola M., Romanelli R., Andreoli S., Pozzi G., Moroni N., et al. High and low dosage oxcarbazepine versus naltrexone for the prevention of relapse in alcohol-dependent patients. Hum Psychopharmacol 22 (2007) 149-156
90. Martinotti G., Romanelli R., Di Nicola M., Reina D., Mazza M., Janiri L., et al. Oxcarbazepine at high dosages for the treatment of alcohol dependence. Am J Addict 16 (2007) 247-248
91. Mayo-Smith M.F. Pharmacological management of alcohol withdrawal: a meta-analysis and evidence-based practice guideline: American Society of Addiction Medicine Working Group on Pharmacological Management of Alcohol Withdrawal. JAMA 278 (1997) 144-151
92. Mayo-Smith M.F., Beecher L.H., Fischer T.L., Gorelick D.A., Guillaume J.L., Hill A., et al. Management of alcohol withdrawal delirium. An evidence-based practice guideline. Arch Intern Med 164 (2004) 1405-1412
93. McLean M. Clinical pharmacokinetics of gabapentin. Neurology 44 (1994) S17-S22
94. McLean M.J. Gabapentin in the management of convulsive disorders. Epilepsia 40 Suppl. 6 (1999) S39-S50
95. Morton W.A., Laird L.K., Crane D.F., Partovi N., and Frye L.H. A prediction model for identifying alcohol withdrawal seizures. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 20 (1994) 75-86
96. Moskowitz G., Chalmers T.C., Sacks H.S., Fagerstrom R.M., and Smith Jr. H. Deficiencies of clinical trials of alcohol withdrawal. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 7 (1983) 42-46
97. Moy S.S., Knapp D.J., Criswell H.E., and Breese G.R. Flumazenil blockade of anxiety following ethanol withdrawal in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 131 (1997) 354-360
98. Moy S.S., Knapp D.J., Duncan G.E., and Breese G.R. Enhanced ultrasonic vocalization and Fos protein expression following ethanol withdrawal: effects of flumazenil. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 152 (2000) 208-215
99. Mueller T.I., Stout R.L., Rudden S., Brown R.A., Gordon A., Solomon D.A., et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study of carbamazepine for the treatment of alcohol dependence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21 (1997) 86-92
100. Murray T.D., and Berger A. Alcohol withdrawal. Va Med Q (Summer) 124 (1997) 184-187 189
101. Myrick H., and Anton R.F. Treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Alcohol Health Res World 22 (1998) 38-43
102. Myrick H., Anton R., Voronin K., Wang W., and Henderson S. A double-blind evaluation of gabapentin on alcohol effects and drinking in a clinical laboratory paradigm. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 31 (2007) 221-227
103. Myrick H., and Brady K.T. The use of divalproex in the treatment of addictive disorders. Psychopharmacol Bull 37 Suppl. 2 (2003) 89-97
104. Myrick H., Brady K.T., and Malcolm R. Divalproex in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 26 (2000) 155-160
105. Myrick H., Malcolm R., and Brady K.T. Gabapentin treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Am J Psychiatry 155 (1998) 1632
106. Myrick H., Taylor B., LaRowe S., Nguyen S., Boyle E., Cochran K., et al. A retrospective chart review comparing tiagabine and benzodiazepines for the treatment of alcohol withdrawal. J Psychoactive Drugs 37 (2005) 409-414
107. Nava F., Premi S., Manzato E., Campagnola W., Lucchini A., Gessa G.L., et al. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate reduces both withdrawal syndrome and hypercortisolism in severe abstinent alcoholics: an open study vs. diazepam. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 33 (2007) 379-392
108. Nimmerrichter A.A., Walter H., Gutierrez-Lobos K.E., and Lesch O.M. Double-blind controlled trial of gamma-hydroxybutyrate and clomethiazole in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Alcohol Alcohol 37 (2002) 67-73
109. Nutt D., Adinoff B., and Linnoila M. Benzodiazepines in the treatment of alcoholism. In: Galanter M. (Ed). Recent development in alcoholism. American Society of Addiction Medicine and Research Society on Alcoholism (1989), Plenum Press, New York 283-313
110. Nutt D.J., Cowen P.J., and Little H.J. Unusual interactions of benzodiazepine receptor antagonists. Nature 295 (1982) 436-438
111. Nutt D., Glue P., Wilson S., Broves S., Coupland N., Bailey J., et al. Flumazenil in alcohol withdrawal. Alcohol Alcohol Suppl 2 (1993) 337-341
112. O'Connor P.G., and Schottenfeld R.S. Patients with alcohol problem. N Engl J Med 338 (1998) 592-602
113. Pardi D., and Black J. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate/sodium oxybate: neurobiology, and impact on sleep and wakefulness. CNS Drugs 20 (2006) 993-1018
114. Pieninkeroinen I.P., Telakivi T.M., and Hillbom M.E. Outcome in subjects with alcohol-provoked seizures. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 16 (1992) 955-959
115. Pippenger C.E. Clinically significant carbamazepine drug interactions: an overview. Epilepsia 28 Suppl 3 (1987) S71-S76
116. Potokar J., Coupland N., Glue P., Broves S., Malizia A., Bailey J., et al. Flumazenil in alcohol withdrawal: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Alcohol Alcohol 32 (1997) 605-611
117. Poulos C.X. Low-dose diazepam primes motivation for alcohol and alcohol-related semantic networks in problem drinkers. Behav Pharmacol 15 (2004) 503-512
118. Prater C.D., Miller K.E., and Zylstra R.G. Outpatient detoxification of the addicted or alcoholic patient. Am Fam Physician 60 (1999) 1175-1183
119. Reoux J.P., Saxon A.J., Malte C.A., Baer J.S., and Sloan K.L. Divalproex sodium in alcohol withdrawal: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 25 (2001) 1324-1329
120. Reoux J.P., Saxon A.J., and Shen D. Pharmacokinetic profile of an oral loading dose of divalproex sodium during acute alcohol withdrawal. J Clin Psychopharmacol 26 (2006) 105-107
121. Rimmer E.M., and Richens A. An update on sodium valproate. Pharmacotherapy 5 (1985) 171-184
122. Ritola E., and Malinen L. A double-blind comparison of carbamazepine and clomethiazole in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Acta Psychiatr Scand 64 (1981) 254-259
123. Rosenthal R.N., Perkel C., Singh P., Anand O., and Miner C.R. A pilot open randomized trial of valproate and phenobarbital in the treatment of acute alcohol withdrawal. Am J Addict 7 (1998) 189-197
124. Ross H.E. Benzodiazepine use and anxiolytic abuse and dependence in treated alcoholics. Addiction 88 (1993) 209-218
125. Rustembegovic A., Sofic E., and Kroyer G. A pilot study of topiramate (Topamax) in the treatment of tonic-clonic seizures of alcohol withdrawal syndromes. Medicinski Arhiv 56 (2002) 211-212
126. Rustembegovic A., Sofic E., Tahirovic I., and Kundurovic Z. A study of gabapentin in the treatment of tonic-clonic seizures of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Med Arh 58 (2004) 5-6
127. Saitz R. Clinical practice. Unhealthy alcohol use. N Engl J Med 352 (2005) 596-607
128. Saitz R., Mayo-Smith M.F., Roberts M.S., Redmond H.A., Bernard D.R., Calkins D.R., et al. Individualized treatment for alcohol withdrawal. A randomized double-blind controlled trial. JAMA 272 (1994) 519-523
129. Schatzberg A.F., Cole J.O., and DeBattista C. Manual of clinical psychopharmacology. 5th ed (2005), American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc, New York
130. Schik G., Wedegaertner F.R., Liersch J., Hoy L., Emrich H.M., Schneider U., et al. Oxcarbazepine versus carbamazepine in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Addict Biol 10 (2005) 283-288
131. Schuckit M.A. Alcoholism acute treatment. In: Schuckit M. (Ed). Drug and alcohol abuse. A clinical guide to diagnosis and treatment (1995), Plenum Medical Book Co, New York-London 97-117
132. Seger D.L. Flumazenil - treatment or toxin. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42 (2004) 209-216
133. Seifert J., Peters E., Jahn K., Metzner C., Ohlmeier M., te Wildt B., et al. Treatment of alcohol withdrawal: chlormethiazole vs. carbamazepine and the effect on memory performance-a pilot study. Addict Biol 9 (2004) 43-51
134. Shaw J.M., Kolesar G.S., Sellers E.M., Kaplan H.L., and Sandor P. Development of optimal treatment tactics for alcohol withdrawal. I. Assessment and effectiveness of supportive care. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1 (1981) 382-387
135. Smith M.C., and Bleck T.P. Convulsive disorders: toxicity of anticonvulsants. Clin Neuropharmacol 14 (1991) 97-115
136. Snead O.C. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate. Life Sci 20 (1977) 1935-1944
137. Snead III O.C., and Gibson K.M. γ-Hydroxybutyric acid. N Engl J Med 352 (2005) 2721-2732
138. Soyka M., Morhart-Klute V., and Horak M. A combination of carbamazepine/tiapride in outpatient alcohol detoxification. Results from an open clinical study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 252 (2002) 197-200
139. Soyka M., Schmidt P., Franz M., Barth T., de Groot M., Kienast T., et al. Treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome with a combination of tiapride/carbamazepine: results of a pooled analysis in 540 patients. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 256 (2006) 395-401
140. Soyka M., Schmidt F., and Schmidt P. Efficacy and safety of outpatient alcohol detoxification with a combination of tiapride/carbamazepine: additional evidence. Pharmacopsychiatry 39 (2006) 30-34
141. Strzelec J.S., and Czarnecka E. Influence of clonazepam and carbamazepine on alcohol withdrawal syndrome, preference and development of tolerance to ethanol in rats. Pol J Pharmacol 53 (2001) 117-124
142. Stuppaeck C.H., Barnas C., Hackenberg K., Miller C.H., and Fleischhacker W.W. Carbamazepine monotherapy in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 5 (1990) 273-278
143. Stuppaeck C.H., Deisenhammer E.A., Kurz M., Whitworth A.B., and Hinterhuber H. The irreversible gamma-aminobutyrate transaminase inhibitor vigabatrin in the treatment of the alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Alcohol Alcohol 31 (1996) 109-111
144. Stuppaeck C.H., Pycha R., Miller C., Whitworth A.B., Oberbauer H., Fleischhacker W.W., et al. Carbamazepine versus oxazepam in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal: a double-blind study. Alcohol Alcohol 27 (1992) 153-158
145. Sullivan J.T., Swift R.M., and Lewis D.C. Benzodiazepines requirements during alcohol withdrawal syndrome: clinical implications of using standardized withdrawal scale. J Clin Psychopharmacol 11 (1991) 291-295
146. Sullivan J.T., Sykora K., Schniederman J., Naranjo C.A., and Sellers E.M. Assessment of alcohol withdrawal: the revised clinical institute withdrawal assessment for alcohol scale (CIWA-Ar). Br J Addict 84 (1989) 1353-1357
147. Swift R.M. Drug therapy for alcohol dependence. N Engl J Med 340 (1999) 1482-1490
148. Torrens M., Martin-Santos R., and Samet S. Importance of clinical diagnoses for comorbidity studies in substance use disorders. Neurotox Res 10 (2006) 253-261
149. Tunnicliff G., and Raess B.U. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (orphan medical). Curr Opin Investig Drugs 3 (2002) 278-283
150. Vayer P., Mandel M., and Maitre M. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate, a possible neurotransmitter. Life Sci 41 (1987) 1547-1557
151. Vonghia L, Leggio L, Ferrulli A, Bertini M, Gasbarrini G, Addolorato G, in press. Acute alcohol intoxication. Eur J Intern Med.
152. Voris J., Smith N.L., Rao S.M., Thorne D.L., and Flowers Q.J. Gabapentin for the treatment of ethanol withdrawal. Subst Abus 24 (2003) 129-132
153. Watson W.P., Robinson E., and Little H.J. The novel anticonvulsant, gabapentin, protects against both convulsant and anxiogenic aspects of the ethanol withdrawal syndrome. Neuropharmacology 36 (1997) 1369-1375
154. Wellington K., and Goa K.L. Oxcarbazepine: an update of its efficacy in the management of epilepsy. CNS Drugs 15 (2001) 137-163