Understanding the origin of asthma and its relationship to breastfeeding

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology

Volumn 554, Issue , 2004, Pages 171-191

  Wills Karp, Marsha ^a   Brandt, Dominique ^a   Morrow, Ardythe L ^a  

^a CINCINNATI CHILDREN'S HOSPITAL MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CYTOKINE;

ASTHMA; ATOPY; BREAST FEEDING; CHILD; CHILDHOOD; CHILDHOOD MORTALITY; CLINICAL FEATURE; CONFERENCE PAPER; DISEASE COURSE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INDUSTRIALIZATION; INTESTINE FLORA; MORBIDITY; MOTHER CHILD RELATION; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RISK FACTOR; SENSITIZATION; TH2 CELL;

EID: 4644341104     PISSN: 00652598     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4757-4242-8_16     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (124)

1. Aaby P, Shaheen SO, Heyes CB, Goudiaby A, Hall AJ, Shiell AW, Jensen H, Marchant A. Early BCG vaccination and reduction in atopy in Guinea-Bissau. Clin Exp Allergy 2000;30:644-650.
2. Adlerberth I, Carlsson B, de Man P, Jalil F, Khan SR, Larsson P, Mellander L, Svanborg C, Wold AE, Hanson LA. Intestinal colonization with Enterobacteriaceae in Pakistani and Swedish hospital-delivered infants. Acta Paediatr Scand 1991;80:602-610.
3. Adlerberth I, Jalil F, Carlsson B, Mellander L, Hanson LA, Larsson P, Khalil K, Wold AE. High turnover rate of Escherichia coli strains in the intestinal flora of infants in Pakistan. Epidemiol Infect 1998;121:587-598.
4. Alm JS, Lilja G, Pershagen G, Scheynius A. Early BCG vaccination and development of atopy. Lancet 1997;350:400-403.
5. Atabani SF, Byrnes AA, Jaye A, Kidd IM, Magnusen AF, Whittle H, Karp CL. Natural measles causes prolonged suppression of interleukin-12 production. J Infect Dis 2001;184:1-9.
6. Azim T, Ahmad SM, Sefat EK, Sarker MS, Unicomb LE, De S, Hamadani JD, Salam MA, Wahed MA, Albert MJ. Immune response of children who develop persistent diarrhea following rotavirus infection. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1999;6:690-695.
7. Azzawi M, Bradley B, Jeffery PK, Frew AJ, Wardlaw AJ, Knowles G, Assoufi B, Collins JV, Durham S, Kay AB. Identification of activated T lymphocytes and eosinophils in bronchial biopsies in stable atopic asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;142:1407-1413.
8. Ball TM, Castro-Rodriguez JA, Griffith KA, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD, Wright AL. Siblings, day-care attendance, and the risk of asthma and wheezing during childhood. N Engl J Med 2000;343:538-543.
9. Barnes PF, Lu S, Abrams JS, Wang E, Yamamura M, Modlin RL. Cytokine production at the site of disease in human tuberculosis. Infect Immun 1993;61:3482-3489.
10. Barrios C, Brawand P, Berney M, Brandt C, Lambert PH, Siegrist CA. Neonatal and early life immune responses to various forms of vaccine antigens qualitatively differ from adult responses: predominance of a Th2-biased pattern which persists after adult boosting. Eur J Immunol 1996;26:1489-1496.
11. Beasley R. The burden of asthma with specific reference to the United States. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002;109:8482-489.
12. Becquet R, Leroy V, Salmi LR. Breastfeeding, atopy, and asthma. Lancet 2003;361:174; author reply 175-176.
13. Berlin CM, Jr., Kacew S, Lawrence R, LaKind JS, Campbell R. Criteria for chemical selection for programs on human milk surveillance and research for environmental chemicals. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2002;65:1839-1851.
14. Bjorksten B. The environmental influence on childhood asthma. Allergy 1999;54 Suppl 49:17-23.
15. Bjorksten B, Naaber P, Sepp E, Mikelsaar M. The intestinal microflora in allergic Estonian and Swedish 2-year-old children. Clin Exp Allergy 1999;29:342-346.
16. Bjorksten F, Suoniemi I, Koski V. Neonatal birch-pollen contact and subsequent allergy to birch pollen. Clin Allergy 1980;10:585-591.
17. Bodner C, Godden D, Seaton A. Family size, childhood infections and atopic diseases. The Aberdeen WHEASE Group. Thorax 1998;53:28-32.
18. Borish L, Aarons A, Rumbyrt J, Cvietusa P, Negri J, Wenzel S. Interleukin-10 regulation in normal subjects and patients with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1996;97:1288-1296.
19. Böttcher MF, Nordin EK, Sandin A, Midtvedt T, Bjorksten B. Microflora-associated characteristics in faeces from allergic and nonallergic infants. Clin Exp Allergy 2000a;30:1590-1596.
20. Böttcher MF, Jenmalm MC, Bjorksten B, Garofalo RP. Chemoattractant factors in breast milk from allergic and nonallergic mothers. Pediatr Res 2000b;47:592-597.
21. Böttcher MF, Jenmalm MC, Garofalo RP, Bjorksten B. Cytokines in breast milk from allergic and nonallergic mothers. Pediatr Res 2000c;47:157-162.
22. Böttcher MF, Fredriksson J, Hellquist A, Jenmalm MC. Effects of breast milk from allergic and non-allergic mothers on mitogen- and allergen-induced cytokine production. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2003a;14:27-34.
23. Böttcher MF, Jenmalm MC, Bjorksten B. Cytokine, chemokine and secretory IgA levels in human milk in relation to atopic disease and IgA production in infants. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2003b;14:35-41.
24. Bottini N, Borgiani P, Otsu A, Saccucci P, Stefanini L, Greco E, Fontana L, Hopkin JM, Mao XQ, Shirakawa T. IL-4 receptor alpha chain genetic polymorphism and total IgE levels in the English population: two-locus haplotypes are more informative than individual SNPs. Clin Genet 2002;61:288-292.
25. Brandtzaeg PE. Current understanding of gastrointestinal immunoregulation and its relation to food allergy. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2002;964:13-45.
26. Buescher ES. Anti-inflammatory characteristics of human milk: how, where, why. Adv Exp Med Biol 2001;501:207-222.
27. Busse WW. The relationship between viral infections and onset of allergic diseases and asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 1989;19:1-9.
28. Carosso A, Ruffino C, Bugiani M. The effect of birth season on pollenosis. Ann Allergy 1986;56:300-303.
29. Chulada PC, Arbes SJ, Jr., Dunson D, Zeldin DC. Breast-feeding and the prevalence of asthma and wheeze in children: analyses from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;111:328-336.
30. Cookson WO, Sharp PA, Faux JA, Hopkin JM. Linkage between immunoglobulin E responses underlying asthma and rhinitis and chromosome 11q. Lancet 1989;1:1292-1295.
31. Coppa GV, Pierani P, Zampini L, Bruni S, Carloni I, Gabrielli O. Characterization of oligosaccharides in milk and feces of breast-fed infants by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography. Adv Exp Med Biol 2001;501:307-314.
32. Corrigan CJ, Kay AB. CD4 T-lymphocyte activation in acute severe asthma. Relationship to disease severity and atopic status. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;141:970-977.
33. Crater SE, Platts-Mills TA. Searching for the cause of the increase in asthma. Curr Opin Pediatr 1998;10:594-599.
34. Dell S, To T. Breastfeeding and asthma in young children: findings from a population-based study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2001;155:1261-1265.
35. Diaz-Sanchez D, Garcia MP, Wang M, Jyrala M, Saxon A. Nasal challenge with diesel exhaust particles can induce sensitization to a neoallergen in the human mucosa. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;104:1183-1188.
36. Erb KJ, Kirman J, Delahunt B, Moll H, Le Gros G. Infection of mice with Mycobacterium bovis-BCG induces both Th1 and Th2 immune responses in the absence of interferon-gamma signalling. Eur Cytokine Netw 1999;10:147-154.
37. Falliers CJ, de Cardoso RR, Bane HN, Coffey R, Middleton E, Jr. Discordant allergic manifestations in monozygotic twins: genetic identity versus clinical, physiologic, and biochemical differences. J Allergy 1971;47:207-219.
38. Farooqi IS, Hopkin JM. Early childhood infection and atopic disorder. Thorax 1998;53:927-932.
39. Field CJ, Thomson CA, Van Aerde JE, Parrott A, Euler A, Lien E, Clandinin MT. Lower proportion of CD45R0+ cells and deficient interleukin-10 production by formula-fed infants, compared with human-fed, is corrected with supplementation of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2000;31:291-299.
40. Garofalo R, Chheda S, Mei F, Palkowetz KH, Rudloff HE, Schmalstieg FC, Rassin DK, Goldman AS. Interleukin-10 in human milk. Pediatr Res 1995;37:444-449.
41. Gruchalla RS, Gan V, Roy L, Bokovoy J, McDermott S, Lawrence G, Hynan L, Luckett P. Results of an innercity school-based asthma and allergy screening pilot study: a combined approach using written questionnaires and step testing. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2003;90:491-499.
42. Hamosh M. The milky way: from mammary gland to milk to newborn-Macy-Gyorgy Award presentation (1999). Adv Exp Med Biol 2002;503:17-25.
43. Hanson LA, Silfverdal SA, Korotkova M, Erling V, Strombeck L, Olcen P, Ulanova M, Hahn-Zoric M, Zaman S, Ashraf R, Telemo E. Immune system modulation by human milk. Adv Exp Med Biol 2002;503:99-106.
44. Hawkes JS, Bryan DL, James MJ, Gibson RA. Cytokines (IL-1beta, IL-6, TNF-alpha, TGF-beta1, and TGF-beta2) and prostaglandin E2 in human milk during the first three months postpartum. Pediatr Res 1999;46:194-199.
45. Heinzmann A, Mao XQ, Akaiwa M, Kreomer RT, Gao PS, Ohshima K, Umeshita R, Abe Y, Braun S, Yamashita T, Roberts MH, Sugimoto R, Arima K, Arinobu Y, Yu B, Kruse S, Enomoto T, Dake Y, Kawai M, Shimazu S, Sasaki S, Adra CN, Kitaichi M, Inoue H, Yamauchi K, Tomichi N, Kurimoto F, Hamasaki N, Hopkin JM, Izuhara K, Shirakawa T, Deichmann KA. Genetic variants of IL-13 signalling and human asthma and atopy. Hum Mol Genet 2000;9:549-559.
46. Hershey GK, Friedrich MF, Esswein LA, Thomas ML, Chatila TA. The association of atopy with a gain-of-function mutation in the alpha subunit of the interleukin-4 receptor. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1720-1725.
47. Hirose J, Ito S, Hirata N, Kido S, Kitabatake N, Narita H. Occurrence of the major food allergen, ovomucoid, in human breast milk as an immune complex. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2001;65:1438-1440.
48. Hsieh CS, Macatonia SE, Tripp CS, Wolf SF, O'Garra A, Murphy KM. Development of TH1 CD4+ T cells through IL-12 produced by Listeria-induced macrophages. Science 1993;260:547-549.
49. [ISAAC] The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood Steering Committee. Worldwide variation in prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and atopic eczema. Lancet 1998;351:1225-1232.
50. Isolauri E, Tahvanainen A, Peltola T, Arvola T. Breast-feeding of allergic infants. J Pediatr 1999;134:27-32.
51. Johns DR. The other human genome: mitochondrial DNA and disease. Nat Med 1996;2:1065-1068.
52. Kalliomaki M, Ouwehand A, Arvilommi H, Kero P, Isolauri E. Transforming growth factor-beta in breast milk: a potential regulator of atopic disease at an early age. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;104:1251-1257.
53. Kalliomaki M, Kirjavainen P, Eerola E, Kero P, Salminen S, Isolauri E. Distinct patterns of neonatal gut microflora in infants in whom atopy was and was not developing. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;107:129-134.
54. Kaufmann SH, Ladel CH, Flesch IE. T cells and cytokines in intracellular bacterial infections: experiences with Mycobacterium bovis BCG. Ciba Found Symp 1995;195:123-132; discussion 132-126.
55. Kay AB. Allergy and allergic diseases. First of two parts. N Engl J Med 2001;344:30-37.
56. Kero J, Gissler M, Gronlund MM, Kero P, Koskinen P, Hemminki E, Isolauri E. Mode of delivery and asthma: is there a connection? Pediatr Res 2002;52:6-11.
57. Kilpelainen M, Terho EO, Helenius H, Koskenvuo M. Farm environment in childhood prevents the development of allergies. Clin Exp Allergy 2000;30:201-208.
58. Kim JH, Ohsawa M. Oral tolerance to ovalbumin in mice as a model for detecting modulators of the immunologic tolerance to a specific antigen. Biol Pharm Bull 1995;18:854-858.
59. Kline JN, Waldschmidt TJ, Businga TR, Lemish JE, Weinstock JV, Thorne PS, Krieg AM. Modulation of airway inflammation by CpG oligodeoxynucleotides in a murine model of asthma. J Immunol 1998;160:2555-2559.
60. Kramer MS, Chalmers B, Hodnett ED, Sevkovskaya Z, Dzikovich I, Shapiro S, Collet JP, Vanilovich I, Mezen I, Ducruet T, Shishko G, Zubovich V, Mknuik D, Gluchanina E, Dombrovskiy V, Ustinovitch A, Kot T, Bogdanovich N, Ovchinikova L, Helsing E. Promotion of Breastfeeding Intervention Trial (PROBIT): a randomized trial in the Republic of Belarus. JAMA 2001;285:413-420.
61. Kuhn R, Lohler J, Rennick D, Rajewsky K, Muller W. Interleukin-10- deficient mice develop chronic enterocolitis. Cell 1993;75:263-274.
62. Laiho K, Lampi AM, Hamalainen M, Moilanen E, Piironen V, Arvola T, Syrjanen S, Isolauri E. Breast milk fatty acids, eicosanoids, and cytokines in mothers with and without allergic disease. Pediatr Res 2003;53:642-647.
63. Landrigan PJ, Sonawane B, Mattison D, McCally M, Garg A. Chemical contaminants in breast milk and their impacts on children's health: an overview. Environ Health Perspect 2002;110:A313-315.
64. Loibichler C, Pichler J, Gerstmayr M, Bohle B, Kisst H, Urbanek R, Szepfalusi Z. Materno-fetal passage of nutritive and inhalant allergens across placentas of term and pre-term deliveries perfused in vitro. Clin Exp Allergy 2002;32:1546-1551.
65. Lynch NR, Hagel I, Perez M, Di Prisco MC, Lopez R, Alvarez N. Effect of anthelmintic treatment on the allergic reactivity of children in a tropical slum. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1993;92:404-411.
66. Mannino DM, Homa DM, Pertowski CA, Ashizawa A, Nixon LL, Johnson CA, Ball LB, Jack E, Kang DS. Surveillance for asthma-United States, 1960-1995. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ 1998;47:1-27.
67. Marsh DG, Neely JD, Breazeale DR, Ghosh B, Freidhoff LR, Ehrlich-Kautzky E, Schou C, Krishnaswamy G, Beaty TH. Linkage analysis of IL4 and other chromosome 5q31.1 markers and total serum immunoglobulin E concentrations. Science 1994;264:1152-1156.
68. Martinez FD. Viral infections and the development of asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:1644-1647; discussion 1647-1648.
69. Martinez FD, Stern DA, Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Taussig LM, Halonen M. Association of interleukin-2 and interferon-gamma production by blood mononuclear cells in infancy with parental allergy skin tests and with subsequent development of atopy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1995a;96:652-660.
70. Martinez FD, Wright AL, Taussig LM, Holberg CJ, Halonen M, Morgan WJ. Asthma and wheezing in the first six years of life. The Group Health Medical Associates. N Engl J Med 1995b;332:133-138.
71. Martinez FD. Development of wheezing disorders and asthma in preschool children. Pediatrics 2002;109:362-367.
72. Matricardi PM, Franzinelli F, Franco A, Caprio G, Murru F, Cioffi D, Ferrigno L, Palermo A, Ciccarelli N, Rosmini F. Sibship size, birth order, and atopy in 11,371 Italian young men. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;101:439-444.
73. [MMWR] Asthma-United States, 1982-1992. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1995;43(51-52):952-955.
74. Morrow AL, Guerrero ML, Shults J, Calva JJ, Lutter C, Bravo J, Ruiz-Palacios G, Morrow RC, Butterfoss FD. Efficacy of home-based peer counselling to promote exclusive breastfeeding: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 1999;353:1226-1231.
75. Mosmann TR, Cherwinski H, Bond MW, Giedlin MA, Coffman RL. Two types of murine helper T cell clone. I. Definition according to profiles of lymphokine activities and secreted proteins. J Immunol 1986;136:2348-2357.
76. [NHLBI/WHO] Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention NHLBI/WHO Workshop Report, 1995.
77. Nicolai T, von Mutius E. Pollution and the development of allergy: the East and West Germany story. Arch Toxicol Suppl 1997;19:201-206.
78. Ober C. Susceptibility genes in asthma and allergy. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2001;1:174-179.
79. Oddy WH, Holt PG, Sly PD, Read AW, Landau LI, Stanley FJ, Kendall GE, Burton PR. Association between breast feeding and asthma in 6 year old children: findings of a prospective birth cohort study. BMJ 1999;319:815-819.
80. Oddy WH, Sly PD, de Klerk NH, Landau LI, Kendall GE, Holt PG, Stanley FJ. Breast feeding and respiratory morbidity in infancy: a birth cohort study. Arch Dis Child 2003a;88:224-228.
81. Oddy WH, Halonen M, Martinez FD, Lohman IC, Stern DA, Kurzius-Spencer M, Guerra S, Wright AL. TGF-beta in human milk is associated with wheeze in infancy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003b;112:723-728.
82. Pabst R. The anatomical basis for the immune function of the gut. Anat Embryol (Berl) 1987;176:135-144.
83. Pessi T, Sutas Y, Hurme M, Isolauri E. Interleukin-10 generation in atopic children following oral Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG. Clin Exp Allergy 2000;30:1804-1808.
84. Postma DS, Bleecker ER, Amelung PJ, Holroyd KJ, Xu J, Panhuysen CI, Meyers DA, Levitt RC. Genetic susceptibility to asthma-bronchial hyperresponsiveness coinherited with a major gene for atopy. N Engl J Med 1995;333:894-900.
85. Prescott SL, Macaubas C, Holt BJ, Smallacombe TB, Loh R, Sly PD, Holt PG. Transplacental priming of the human immune system to environmental allergens: universal skewing of initial T cell responses toward the Th2 cytokine profile. J Immunol 1998a;160:4730-4737.
86. Prescott SL, Macaubas C, Smallacombe T, Holt BJ, Sly PD, Loh R, Holt PG. Reciprocal age-related patterns of allergen-specific T-cell immunity in normal vs. atopic infants. Clin Exp Allergy 1998b;28 Suppl 5:39-44; discussion 50-31.
87. Prescott SL, Macaubas C, Smallacombe T, Holt BJ, Sly PD, Holt PG. Development of allergen-specific T-cell memory in atopic and normal children. Lancet 1999;353:196-200.
88. Raqib R, Lindberg AA, Wretlind B, Bardhan PK, Andersson U, Andersson J. Persistence of local cytokine production in shigellosis in acute and convalescent stages. Infect Immun 1995;63:289-296.
89. Rautava S, Kalliomaki M, Isolauri E. Probiotics during pregnancy and breast-feeding might confer immunomodulatory protection against atopic disease in the infant. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002;109:119-121.
90. Reik W, Walter J. Imprinting mechanisms in mammals. Curr Opin Genet Dev 1998;8:154-164.
91. Remes ST, Castro-Rodriguez JA, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD, Wright AL. Dog exposure in infancy decreases the subsequent risk of frequent wheeze but not of atopy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;108:509-515.
92. Saarinen KM, Vaarala O, Klemetti P, Savilahti E. Transforming growth factor-beta1 in mothers' colostrum and immune responses to cows' milk proteins in infants with cows' milk allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;104:1093-1098.
93. Sandford A, Weir T, Pare P. The genetics of asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:1749-1765.
94. Sears MR, Greene JM, Willan AR, Taylor DR, Flannery EM, Cowan JO, Herbison GP, Poulton R. Long-term relation between breastfeeding and development of atopy and asthma in children and young adults: a longitudinal study. Lancet 2002;360:901-907.
95. Shevach EM, McHugh RS, Piccirillo CA, Thornton AM. Control of T-cell activation by CD4+ CD25+ suppressor T cells. Immunol Rev 2001;182:58-67.
96. Shirakawa T, Enomoto T, Shimazu S, Hopkin JM. The inverse association between tuberculin responses and atopic disorder. Science 1997;275:77-79.
97. Srivastava MD, Srivastava A, Brouhard B, Saneto R, Groh-Wargo S, Kubit J. Cytokines in human milk. Res Commun Mol Pathol Pharmacol 1996;93:263-287.
98. Stein RT, Holberg CJ, Morgan WJ, Wright AL, Lombardi E, Taussig L, Martinez FD. Peak flow variability, methacholine responsiveness and atopy as markers for detecting different wheezing phenotypes in childhood. Thorax 1997;52:946-952.
99. Stene LC, Nafstad P. Relation between occurrence of type 1 diabetes and asthma. Lancet 2001;357:607-608.
100. Stephens S, Duffy SW, Page C. A longitudinal study of gamma-interferon production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from breast- and bottle-fed infants. Clin Exp Immunol 1986;65:396-400.
101. Strachan DP. Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. BMJ 1989;299:1259-1260.
102. Street NE, Mosmann TR. Functional diversity of T lymphocytes due to secretion of different cytokine patterns. FASEB J 1991;5:171-177.
103. Sudo N, Sawamura S, Tanaka K, Aiba Y, Kubo C, Koga Y. The requirement of intestinal bacterial flora for the development of an IgE production system fully susceptible to oral tolerance induction. J Immunol 1997;159:1739-1745.
104. Takahashi T, Yoshida Y, Hatano S, Sugita-Konishi Y, Igimi S, Yajima M, Kojima T, Kanno T, Yonekubo A, Yajima T, Kuwata T. Reactivity of secretory IgA antibodies in breast milk from 107 Japanese mothers to 20 environmental antigens. Biol Neonate 2002;82:238-242.
105. Taussig LM, Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Halonen M, Morgan WJ, Martinez FD. Tucson Children's Respiratory Study: 1980 to present. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;111:661-675; quiz 676.
106. Usha Kiran TS, Jayawickrama NS. Who is responsible for the rising caesarean section rate? J Obstet Gynaecol 2002;22:363-365.
107. Vadas P, Wai Y, Burks W, Perelman B. Detection of peanut allergens in breast milk of lactating women. JAMA 2001;285:1746-1748.
108. van den Biggelaar AH, van Ree R, Rodrigues LC, Lell B, Deelder AM, Kremsner PG, Yazdanbakhsh M. Decreased atopy in children infected with Schistosoma haematobium: a role for parasite-induced interleukin-10. Lancet 2000;356:1723-1727.
109. van Odijk J, Kull I, Borres MP, Brandtzaeg P, Edberg U, Hanson LA, Host A, Kuitunen M, Olsen SF, Skerfving S, Sundell J, Wille S. Breastfeeding and allergic disease: a multidisciplinary review of the literature (1966-2001) on the mode of early feeding in infancy and its impact on later atopic manifestations. Allergy 2003;58:833-843.
110. Wahn U, Lau S, Bergmann R, Kulig M, Forster J, Bergmann K, Bauer CP, Guggenmoos-Holzmann I. Indoor allergen exposure is a risk factor for sensitization during the first three years of life. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997;99:763-769.
111. Wang CC, Nolan TJ, Schad GA, Abraham D. Infection of mice with the helminth Strongyloides stercoralis suppresses pulmonary allergic responses to ovalbumin. Clin Exp Allergy 2001;31:495-503.
112. Warner JA, Miles EA, Jones AC, Quint DJ, Colwell BM, Warner JO. Is deficiency of interferon gamma production by allergen triggered cord blood cells a predictor of atopic eczema? Clin Exp Allergy 1994;24:423-430.
113. Weiland SK, von Mutius E, Hirsch T, Duhme H, Fritzsch C, Werner B, Husing A, Stender M, Renz H, Leupold W, Keil U. Prevalence of respiratory and atopic disorders among children in the East and West of Germany five years after unification. Eur Respir J 1999;14:862-870.
114. Wickens K, Pearce N, Crane J, Beasley R. Antibiotic use in early childhood and the development of asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 1999;29:766-771.
115. Wilkinson JR, Lane SJ, Lee TH. Effects of corticosteroids on cytokine generation and expression of activation antigens by monocytes in bronchial asthma. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 1991;94:220-221.
116. Wills-Karp M. Immunologic basis of antigen-induced airway hyperresponsiveness. Annu Rev Immunol 1999;17:255-281.
117. Wills-Karp M, Santeliz J, Karp CL. The germless theory of allergic disease: revisiting the hygiene hypothesis. Nat Rev Immunol 2001;1:69-75.
118. Wilson AF, Novey HS, Berke RA, Surprenant EL. Deposition of inhaled pollen and pollen extract in human airways. N Engl J Med 1973;288:1056-1058.
119. Wold AE. The hygiene hypothesis revised: is the rising frequency of allergy due to changes in the intestinal flora? Allergy 1998;53:20-25.
120. Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD, Morgan WJ, Taussig LM. Breast feeding and lower respiratory tract illness in the first year of life. Group Health Medical Associates. BMJ 1989;299:946-949.
121. Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Taussig LM, Martinez FD. Factors influencing the relation of infant feeding to asthma and recurrent wheeze in childhood. Thorax 2001a;56:192-197.
122. Wright AL, Stern DA, Halonen M. The association of allergic sensitization in mother and child in breast-fed and formula-fed infants. Adv Exp Med Biol 2001b;501:249-255.
123. Xanthou M. Immune protection of human milk. Biol Neonate 1998;74:121-133.
124. Yoshioka H, Iseki K, Fujita K. Development and differences of intestinal flora in the neonatal period in breast-fed and bottle-fed infants. Pediatrics 1983;72:317-321.