Lead and cognitive function in adults: A questions and answers approach to a review of the evidence for cause, treatment, and prevention

International Review of Psychiatry

Volumn 19, Issue 6, 2007, Pages 671-692

  Schwartz, Brian S ^a,b   Stewart, Walter F ^c  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS BLOOMBERG SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^b JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c GEISINGER HEALTH SYSTEM   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EDETIC ACID; SUCCIMER;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; COGNITION; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; FOLLOW UP; HUMAN; LEAD BLOOD LEVEL; LEAD POISONING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUESTIONNAIRE; RACE DIFFERENCE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SOCIAL STATUS;

ADULT; AGE OF ONSET; COGNITION DISORDERS; HUMANS; LEAD POISONING; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX;

EID: 38749134497     PISSN: 09540261     EISSN: 13691627     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09540260701797936     Document Type: Review

References (162)

1. Ahmed, N. S., el-Gendy, K. S., el-Refaie, A. K., Marzouk, S. A., Bakry, N. S., el-Sebae, A. H., et al. (1987). Assessment of lead toxicity in traffic controllers of Alexandria, Egypt, road intersections. Arch Environ Health, 42, 92-95.
2. Araki, S., Yokoyama, K., Aono, H., & Murata, K. (1986). Psychological performance in relation to central and peripheral nerve conduction in workers exposed to lead, zinc, and copper. Am J Ind Med, 9, 535-542.
3. Arnvig, E., Grandjean, P., & Beckmann, J. (1980). Neurotoxic effects of heavy lead exposure determined with psychological tests. Toxicol Lett, 5, 399-404.
4. ATSDR (1999). Toxicological profile for lead. Update, 1999. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
5. Baghurst, P. A., McMichael, A. J., Tong, S., Wigg, N. R., Vimpani, G. V., & Robertson, E. F. (1995). Exposure to environmental lead and visual-motor integration at age 7 years: The Port Pirie Cohort Study. Epidemiology, 6, 104-109.
6. Baghurst, P. A., McMichael, A. J., Wigg, N. R., Vimpani, G. V., Robertson, E. F., Roberts, R. J., et al. (1992). Environmental exposure to lead and children's intelligence at the age of seven years. The Port Pirie Cohort Study. N Engl J Med, 327, 1279-1284.
7. Baker, E. L., Feldman, R. G., White, R. A., Harley, J. P., Niles, C., Dinse, G. E., et al. (1984). Occupational lead neurotoxicity: A behavioural and electrophysiological evaluation. Study design and year one results. Br J Ind Med, 41, 352-361.
8. Baker, E. L., Feldman, R. G., White, R. F., & Harley, J. P. (1983). The role of occupational lead exposure in the genesis of psychiatric and behavioral disturbances. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl, 303, 38-48.
9. Baker, E. L., White, R. F., Pothier, L. J., Berkey, C. S., Dinse, G. E., Travers, P. H., et al. (1985). Occupational lead neurotoxicity: Improvement in behavioural effects after reduction of exposure. Br J Ind Med, 42, 507-516.
10. Balbus-Kornfeld, J. M., Stewart, W., Bolla, K. I., & Schwartz, B. S. (1995). Cumulative exposure to inorganic lead and neurobehavioural test performance in adults: An epidemiological review. Occup Environ Med, 52, 2-12.
11. Barth, A., Schaffer, A. W., Osterode, W., Winker, R., Konnaris, C., Valic, E., et al. (2002). Reduced cognitive abilities in lead-exposed men. Int Arch Occup Environ Health, 75, 394-398.
12. Bartzokis, G. (2004). Age-related myelin breakdown: A developmental model of cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging, 25, 5-18; , author reply 49-62.
13. Basha, M. R., Wei, W., Bakheet, S. A., Benitez, N., Siddiqi, H. K., Ge, Y. W., et al. (2005). The fetal basis of amyloidogenesis: Exposure to lead and latent overexpression of amyloid precursor protein and beta-amyloid in the aging brain. J Neurosci, 25, 823-829.
14. Bellinger, D., Hu, H., Titlebaum, L., & Needleman, H. L. (1994a). Attentional correlates of dentin and bone lead levels in adolescents. Arch Environ Health, 49, 98-105.
15. Bellinger, D., Leviton, A., Allred, E., & Rabinowitz, M. (1994b). Pre- and postnatal lead exposure and behavior problems in school-aged children. Environ Res, 66, 12-30.
16. Bellinger, D., Leviton, A., Needleman, H. L., Waternaux, C., & Rabinowitz, M. (1986). Low-level lead exposure and infant development in the first year. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol, 8, 151-161.
17. Bergdahl, I. A., Grubb, A., Schutz, A., Desnick, R. J., Wetmur, J. G., Sassa, S., et al. (1997). Lead binding to delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) in human erythrocytes. Pharmacol Toxicol, 81, 153-158.
18. Bleecker, M. L., Ford, D. P., Lindgren, K. N., Hoese, V. M., Walsh, K. S., & Vaughan, C. G. (2005). Differential effects of lead exposure on components of verbal memory. Occup Environ Med, 62, 181-187.
19. Bleecker, M. L., Lindgren, K. N., & Ford, D. P. (1997). Differential contribution of current and cumulative indices of lead dose to neuropsychological performance by age. Neurology, 48, 639-645.
20. Bogden, J. D., Gertner, S. B., Christakos, S., Kemp, F. W., Yang, Z., Katz, S. R., et al. (1992). Dietary calcium modifies concentrations of lead and other metals and renal calbindin in rats. J Nutr, 122, 1351-1360.
21. Bogden, J. D., Gertner, S. B., Kemp, F. W., McLeod, R., Bruening, K. S., & Chung, H. R. (1991). Dietary lead and calcium: Effects on blood pressure and renal neoplasia in Wistar rats. J Nutr, 121, 718-728.
22. Bogden, J. D., Kemp, F. W., Han, S., Murphy, M., Fraiman, M., Czerniach, D., et al. (1995). Dietary calcium and lead interact to modify maternal blood pressure, erythropoiesis, and fetal and neonatal growth in rats during pregnancy and lactation. J Nutr, 125, 990-1002.
23. Bolla, K. I., Schwartz, B. S., Stewart, W., Rignani, J., Agnew, J., & Ford, D. P. (1995). Comparison of neurobehavioral function in workers exposed to a mixture of organic and inorganic lead and in workers exposed to solvents. Am J Ind Med, 27, 231-246.
24. Braak, H., & Del Tredici, K. (2004). Poor and protracted myelination as a contributory factor to neurodegenerative disorders. Neurobiol Aging, 25, 19-23.
25. Bradbury, M. W., & Deane, R. (1993). Permeability of the blood-brain barrier to lead. Neurotoxicology, 14, 131-136.
26. Braga, M. F., Pereira, E. F., Mike, A., & Albuquerque, E. X. (2004). Pb2+via protein kinase C inhibits nicotinic cholinergic modulation of synaptic transmission in the hippocampus. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 311, 700-710.
27. Calne, D. B., Eisen, A., McGeer, E., & Spencer, P. (1986). Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and motoneurone disease: A biotrophic interaction between ageing and environment? Lancet, 2, 1067-1070.
28. Campara, P., D'Andrea, F., Micciolo, R., Savonitto, C., Tansella, M., & Zimmermann-Tansella, C. (1984). Psychological performance of workers with blood-lead concentration below the current threshold limit value. Int Arch Occup Environ Health, 53, 233-246.
29. Casanova, I. (1998). Clair C. Patterson (1922-1995), discoverer of the age of the Earth. Int Microbiol, 1, 231-232.
30. Castellino, N., Castellino, P., & Sannolo, N. (Eds) (1995). Inorganic lead exposure: Metabolism and intoxication. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
31. Cavalleri, A., Minoia, C., Ceroni, M., & Poloni, M. (1984). Lead in cerebrospinal fluid and its relationship to plasma lead in humans. J Appl Toxicol, 4, 63-65.
32. Chettle, D. R., Scott, M. C., & Somervaille, L. J. (1991). Lead in bone: Sampling and quantitation using K X-rays excited by 109Cd. Environ Health Perspect, 91, 49-55.
33. Chia, S. E., Chia, H. P., Ong, C. N., & Jeyaratnam, J. (1997). Cumulative blood lead levels and neurobehavioral test performance. Neurotoxicology, 18, 793-803.
34. Cholewa, M., Hanson, A. L., Jones, K. W., McNally, W. P., & Fand, I. (1986). Regional distribution of lead in the brains of lead-intoxicated adult mice. Neurotoxicology, 7, 9-18.
35. Cory-Slechta, D. A. (1988). Mobilization of lead over the course of DMSA chelation therapy and long-term efficacy. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 246, 84-91.
36. Cory-Slechta, D. A., Virgolini, M. B., Thiruchelvam, M., Weston, D. D., & Bauter, M. R. (2004). Maternal stress modulates the effects of developmental lead exposure. Environ Health Perspect, 112, 717-730.
37. Cory-Slechta, D. A., Weiss, B., & Cox, C. (1987). Mobilization and redistribution of lead over the course of calcium disodium ethylenediamine tetraacetate chelation therapy. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 243, 804-813.
38. Davey, F. D., & Breen, K. C. (1998). The interaction between chronic low-level lead and the amyloid beta precursor protein. Amyloid, 5, 90-98.
39. Derogatis, L. R., & Melisaratos, N. (1983). The Brief Symptom Inventory: An introductory report. Psychol Med, 13, 595-605.
40. Dorsey, C. D., Lee, B. K., Bolla, K. I., Weaver, V. M., Lee, S. S., Lee, G. S., et al. (2006). Comparison of patella lead with blood lead and tibia lead and their associations with neurobehavioral test scores. J Occup Environ Med, 48, 489-496.
41. Ehle, A. L., & McKee, D. C. (1990). Neuropsychological effect of lead in occupationally exposed workers: A critical review. Crit Rev Toxicol, 20, 237-255.
42. Espinosa, A. S., Canepa, C. D., Hermosilla, P. D., de Jong, C., Horta, E., Herrera, C., et al. (1990). Study of neurobehavioral disturbances from lead exposure using neuropsychological indicators. In B. L. Johnson (Ed.), Advances in neurobehavioral toxicology: Applications in environmental and occupational health (pp. 339-352). Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publisher, Inc.
43. Ferguson, C., Kern, M., & Audesirk, G. (2000). Nanomolar concentrations of inorganic lead increase Ca2+efflux and decrease intracellular free Ca2+ion concentrations in cultured rat hippocampal neurons by a calmodulin-dependent mechanism. Neurotoxicology, 21, 365-378.
44. Finkelstein, Y., Markowitz, M. E., & Rosen, J. F. (1998). Low-level lead-induced neurotoxicity in children: An update on central nervous system effects. Brain Res Brain Res Rev, 27, 168-176.
45. Fishel, M.L., Vasko, M.R., & Kelley, M.R. (2006). DNA repair in neurons: So if they don't divide what's to repair? Mutat Res.
46. Flegal, A. R. (1998). Clair Patterson's influence on environmental research. Environ Res, 78, 64-70.
47. Fried, L. P., Borhani, N. O., Enright, P., Furberg, C. D., Gardin, J. M., Kronmal, R. A., et al. (1991). The Cardiovascular Health Study: Design and rationale. Ann Epidemiol, 1, 263-276.
48. Frisch, M., & Schwartz, B. S. (2002). The pitfalls of hair analysis for toxicants in clinical practice: Three case reports:. Environ Health Perspect, 110, 433-436.
49. Fullmer, C. S. (1995). Dietary calcium levels and treatment interval determine the effects of lead ingestion on plasma 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D concentration in chicks. J Nutr, 125, 1328-1333.
50. Gilbert, M. E., Kelly, M. E., Samsam, T. E., & Goodman, J. H. (2005). Chronic developmental lead exposure reduces neurogenesis in adult rat hippocampus but does not impair spatial learning:. Toxicol Sci, 86, 365-374.
51. Glantz, L. A., Gilmore, J. H., Lieberman, J. A., & Jarskog, L. F. (2006). Apoptotic mechanisms and the synaptic pathology of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res, 81, 47-63.
52. Glass, T. A., Rasmussen, M. R. & Schwartz, B. S. (2006). Neighbourhoods and obesity in older adults: the Baltimore Memory Study. Am J Prev Med, 31, 455-463.
53. Goodman, M., LaVerda, N., Clarke, C., Foster, E. D., Iannuzzi, J., & Mandel, J. (2002). Neurobehavioural testing in workers occupationally exposed to lead: Systematic review and meta-analysis of publications. Occup Environ Med, 59, 217-223.
54. Gorell, J. M., Johnson, C. C., Rybicki, B. A., Peterson, E. L., Kortsha, G. X., Brown, G. G., et al. (1997). Occupational exposures to metals as risk factors for Parkinson's disease. Neurology, 48, 650-658.
55. Gorell, J. M., Johnson, C. C., Rybicki, B. A., Peterson, E. L., Kortsha, G. X., Brown, G. G., et al. (1999). Occupational exposure to manganese, copper, lead, iron, mercury and zinc and the risk of Parkinson's disease:. Neurotoxicology, 20, 239-247.
56. Gowers, W. R. (1902). A lecture on abiotrophy. Lancet, I, 1003-1007.
57. Grandjean, P., Arnvig, E., & Beckmann, J. (1978). Psychological dysfunctions in lead-exposed workers. Relation to biological parameters of exposure. Scand J Work Environ Health, 4, 295-303.
58. Guilarte, T. R. (1997). Pb2+inhibits NMDA receptor function at high and low affinity sites: developmental and regional brain expression. Neurotoxicology, 18, 43-51.
59. Guilarte, T. R. (2004). Prenatal lead exposure and schizophrenia: A plausible neurobiologic connection. Environ Health Perspect, 112, A724.
60. Guilarte, T. R., Toscano, C. D., McGlothan, J. L., & Weaver, S. A. (2003). Environmental enrichment reverses cognitive and molecular deficits induced by developmental lead exposure. Ann Neurol, 53, 50-56.
61. Gurland, B. J., Wilder, D. E., Lantigua, R., Stern, Y., Chen, J., Killeffer, E. H., et al. (1999). Rates of dementia in three ethnoracial groups. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry, 14, 481-493.
62. Haenninen, H., Hernberg, S., Mantere, P., Vesanto, R., & Jalkanen, M. (1978). Psychological performance of subjects with low exposure to lead. J. Occup Med, 20, 683-689.
63. Hanninen, H., Aitio, A., Kovala, T., Luukkonen, R., Matikainen, E., Mannelin, T., et al. (1998). Occupational exposure to lead and neuropsychological dysfunction. Occup Environ Med, 55, 202-209.
64. Hogstedt, C., Hane, M., Agrell, A., & Bodin, L. (1983). Neuropsychological test results and symptoms among workers with well-defined long-term exposure to lead. Br J Ind Med, 40, 99-105.
65. Hursh, J. B., & Suomela, J. (1968). Absorption of 212Pb from the gastrointestinal tract of man. Acta Radiol Ther Phys Biol, 7, 108-120.
66. Jeyaratnam, J., Boey, K. W., Ong, C. N., Chia, C. B., & Phoon, W. O. (1986). Neuropsychological studies on lead workers in Singapore. Br J Ind Med, 43, 626-629.
67. Kamel, F., Umbach, D. M., Munsat, T. L., Shefner, J. M., Hu, H., & Sandler, D. P. (2002). Lead exposure and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Epidemiology, 13, 311-319.
68. Kosnett, M. J., Wedeen, R. P., Rothenberg, S. J., Hipkins, K. L., Matera, B. L., Schwartz, B. S. et al. (2007). Recommendations for medical management of adult lead exposure. Environ Health Perspect, 115, 463-471.
69. Krantic, S., Mechawar, N., Reix, S., & Quirion, R. (2005). Molecular basis of programmed cell death involved in neurodegeneration. Trends Neurosci, 28, 670-676.
70. Lanphear, B. P., Hornung, R., Khoury, J., Yolton, K., Baghurst, P., Bellinger, D. C., et al. (2005). Low-level environmental lead exposure and children's intellectual function: An international pooled analysis. Environ Health Perspect, 113, 894-899.
71. LeBlanc, A. C. (2005). The role of apoptotic pathways in Alzheimer's disease neurodegeneration and cell death. Curr Alzheimer Res, 2, 389-402.
72. Leggett, R. W. (1993). An age-specific kinetic model of lead metabolism in humans. Environ Health Perspect, 101, 598-616.
73. Lever, S. Z., & Scheffel, U. (1998). Regional distribution of 203PbCl2 in the mouse after intravenous injection. Neurotoxicology, 19, 197-207.
74. Lin, C., Kim, R., Tsaih, S. W., Sparrow, D., & Hu, H. (2004). Determinants of bone and blood lead levels among minorities living in the Boston area. Environ Health Perspect, 112, 1147-1151.
75. Lindgren, K. N., Masten, V. L., Ford, D. P., & Bleecker, M. L. (1996). , Relation of cumulative exposure to inorganic lead and neuropsychological test performance. Occup Environ Med, 53, 472-477.
76. Lindgren, K. N., Masten, V. L., Tiburzi, M. J., Ford, D. P., & Bleecker, M. L. (1999). The factor structure of the Profile of Mood States (POMS) and its relationship to occupational lead exposure. J Occup Environ Med, 41, 3-10.
77. Links, J. M., Schwartz, B. S., Simon, D., Bandeen-Roche, K., & Stewart, W. F. (2001). Characterization of toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics with linear systems theory: Application to lead-associated cognitive decline. Environ Health Perspect, 109, 361-368.
78. Lucchini, R., Albini, E., Cortesi, I., Placidi, D., Bergamaschi, E., Traversa, F., et al. (2000). Assessment of neurobehavioral performance as a function of current and cumulative occupational lead exposure. Neurotoxicology, 21, 805-811.
79. Lustberg, M., & Silbergeld, E. (2002). Blood lead levels and mortality. Arch Intern Med, 162, 2443-2449.
80. Maizlish, N. A., Parra, G., & Feo, O. (1995). Neurobehavioural evaluation of Venezuelan workers exposed to inorganic lead. Occup Environ Med, 52, 408-414.
81. Mantere, P., Hanninen, H., Hernberg, C., & Luukkonen, R. (1984). A prospective follow-up study on psychological effects in workers exposed to low levels of lead. Scand J Work Environ Health, 10, 43-50.
82. Marchioro, M., Swanson, K. L., Aracava, Y., & Albuquerque, E. X. (1996). Glycine and calcium-dependent effects of lead on N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor function in rat hippocampal neurons. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 279, 143-153.
83. Markovac, J., & Goldstein, G. W. (1988). Lead activates protein kinase C in immature rat brain microvessels. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 96, 14-23.
84. Martin, D., Glass, T. A., Bandeen-Roche, K., Todd, A. C., Shi, W., & Schwartz, B. S. (2006). Association of blood lead and tibia lead with blood pressure and hypertension in a community sample of older adults. Am J Epidemiol, 163, 467-478.
85. McMichael, A. J., Baghurst, P. A., Vimpani, G. V., Wigg, N. R., Robertson, E. F., & Tong, S. (1994). Tooth lead levels and IQ in school-age children: The Port Pirie Cohort Study. Am J Epidemiol, 140, 489-499.
86. McMichael, A. J., Baghurst, P. A., Wigg, N. R., Vimpani, G. V., Robertson, E. F., & Roberts, R. J. (1988). Port Pirie Cohort Study: Environmental exposure to lead and children's abilities at the age of four years. N Engl J Med, 319, 468-475.
87. McNair, D. M., Lorr, M., & Droppelman, L. F. (1971). Manual for the profile of mood states. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service.
88. Meyer-Baron, M., & Seeber, A. (2000). A meta-analysis for neurobehavioural results due to occupational lead exposure with blood lead concentrations<70 microg/100 ml. Arch Toxicol, 73, 510-518.
89. Mike, A., Pereira, E. F., & Albuquerque, E. X. (2000). Ca(2+)-sensitive inhibition by Pb(2+) of alpha7-containing nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in hippocampal neurons. Brain Res, 873, 112-123.
90. Milburn, H., Mitran, E., & Crockford, G. W. (1976). An investigation of lead workers for subclinical effects of lead using three performance tests. Ann Occup Hyg, 19, 239-249.
91. Momcilovic, B., Alkhatib, H. A., Duerre, J. A., Cooley, M., Long, W. M., Harris, T. R., et al. (2001). Environmental lead-210 and bismuth-210 accrue selectively in the brain proteins in Alzheimer disease and brain lipids in Parkinson disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord, 15, 106-115.
92. Muntner, P., Menke, A., DeSalvo, K. B., Rabito, F. A., & Batuman, V. (2005). Continued decline in blood lead levels among adults in the United States: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Arch Intern Med, 165, 2155-2161.
93. Needleman, H. L. (1973). Lead poisoning in children: Neurologic implications of widespread subclinical intoxication. Semin Psychiatry, 5, 47-54.
94. Needleman, H. L. (1979). Lead levels and children's psychologic performance. N Engl J Med, 301, 163.
95. Needleman, H. L. (1992). Effects of low levels of lead exposure. Science, 256, 294-295.
96. Needleman, H. L. (1998). Clair Patterson and Robert Kehoe: Two views of lead toxicity. Environ Res, 78, 79-85.
97. Needleman, H. L., McFarland, C., Ness, R. B., Fienberg, S. E., & Tobin, M. J. (2002). Bone lead levels in adjudicated delinquents. A case control study. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 24, 711-717.
98. Ong, C. N., & Lee, W. R. (1980). Distribution of lead-203 in human peripheral blood in vitro. Br J Ind Med, 37, 78-84.
99. Opler, M. G., Brown, A. S., Graziano, J., Desai, M., Zheng, W., Schaefer, C., et al. (2004). Prenatal lead exposure, delta-aminolevulinic acid, and schizophrenia. Environ Health Perspect, 112, 548-552.
100. Osterberg, K., Borjesson, J., Gerhardsson, L., Schutz, A., & Skerfving, S. (1997). A neurobehavioural study of long-term occupational inorganic lead exposure. Sci Total Environ, 201, 39-51.
101. Parkinson, D. K., Ryan, C., Bromet, E. J., & Connell, M. M. (1986). A psychiatric epidemiologic study of occupational lead exposure. Am J Epidemiol, 123, 261-269.
102. Pasternak, G., Becker, C. E., Lash, A., Bowler, R., Estrin, W. J., & Law, D. (1989). Cross-sectional neurotoxicology study of lead-exposed cohort. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol, 27, 37-51.
103. Patterson, C. C. (1965). Contaminated and Natural Lead Environments of Man. Arch Environ Health, 11, 344-360.
104. Payton, M., Riggs, K. M., Spiro III, A., Weiss, S. T., & Hu, H. (1998). Relations of bone and blood lead to cognitive function: The VA Normative Aging Study. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 20, 19-27.
105. Pfister, E., Bockelmann, I., Darius, S., & Wurthmann, C. (1999). [Inclusion of psychopathologic methods for diagnosis of early neurotoxic effects from lead and organic solvent mixtures]. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr, 67, 435-440.
106. Pirkle, J. L., Brody, D. J., Gunter, E. W., Kramer, R. A., Paschal, D. C., Flegal, K. M., et al. (1994). The decline in blood lead levels in the United States. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES). JAMA, 272, 284-291.
107. Prince, M. (1998). Is chronic low-level lead exposure in early life an etiologic factor in Alzheimer's disease? Epidemiology, 9, 618-621.
108. Rabinowitz, M. B. (1991). Toxicokinetics of bone lead. Environ Health Perspect, 91, 33-37.
109. Rabinowitz, M. B., Wetherill, G. W., & Kopple, J. D. (1976). Kinetic analysis of lead metabolism in healthy humans. J Clin Invest, 58, 260-270.
110. Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl Psychol Measurement, 1, 385-401.
111. Raghavan, S. R., & Gonick, H. C. (1977). Isolation of low-molecular-weight lead-binding protein from human erythrocytes. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med, 155, 164-716.
112. Ramesh, G. T., Manna, S. K., Aggarwal, B. B., & Jadhav, A. L. (2001). Lead exposure activates nuclear factor kappa B, activator protein-1, c-Jun N-terminal kinase and caspases in the rat brain. Toxicol Lett, 123, 195-207.
113. Repko, J.D., Jones, P.D., Garcia, L.S., & Corum, C.R. (1977). The effects of inorganic lead on behavioral and neurologic function. Cincinnati, OH: US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Services, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 103.
114. Rhodes, D., Spiro III, A., Aro, A., & Hu, H. (2003). Relationship of bone and blood lead levels to psychiatric symptoms: The normative aging study. J Occup Environ Med, 45, 1144-1151.
115. Roels, H., Konings, J., Green, S., Bradley, D., Chettle, D., & Lauwerys, R. (1995). Time-integrated blood lead concentration is a valid surrogate for estimating the cumulative lead dose assessed by tibial lead measurement. Environ Res, 69, 75-82.
116. Ryan, C. M., Morrow, L., Parkinson, D., & Bromet, E. (1987). Low level lead exposure and neuropsychological functioning in blue collar males. Int J Neurosci, 36, 29-39.
117. Scahill, R. I., Frost, C., Jenkins, R., Whitwell, J. L., Rossor, M. N., & Fox, N. C. (2003). A longitudinal study of brain volume changes in normal aging using serial registered magnetic resonance imaging. Arch Neurol, 60, 989-994.
118. Schwartz, B. S., Bolla, K. I., Stewart, W., Ford, D. P., Agnew, J., & Frumkin, H. (1993). Decrements in neurobehavioral performance associated with mixed exposure to organic and inorganic lead. Am J Epidemiol, 137, 1006-1021.
119. Schwartz, B. S., Glass, T. A., Bolla, K. I., Stewart, W. F., Glass, G., Rasmussen, M., et al. (2004). Disparities in cognitive functioning by race/ethnicity in the Baltimore Memory Study. Environ Health Perspect, 112, 314-320.
120. Schwartz, B. S., Lee, B. K., Bandeen-Roche, K., Stewart, W., Bolla, K., Links, J., et al. (2005). Occupational lead exposure and longitudinal decline in neurobehavioral test scores. Epidemiology, 16, 106-113.
121. Schwartz, B. S., Lee, B. K., Lee, G. S., Stewart, W. F., Lee, S. S., Hwang, K. Y., et al. (2001). Associations of blood lead, dimercaptosuccinic acid-chelatable lead, and tibia lead with neurobehavioral test scores in South Korean lead workers. Am J Epidemiol, 153, 453-464.
122. Schwartz, B. S., Stewart, W., & Hu, H. (2002). Neurobehavioural testing in workers occupationally exposed to lead. Occup Environ Med, 59, 648-649.
123. Schwartz, B. S., Stewart, W. F., Bolla, K. I., Simon, P. D., Bandeen-Roche, K., Gordon, P. B., et al. (2000). Past adult lead exposure is associated with longitudinal decline in cognitive function. Neurology, 55, 1144-1150.
124. Seeber, A., & Meyer-Baron, M. (2003). Neurobehavioural testing in workers occupationally exposed to lead. Occup Environ Med, 60, 145, author reply 145-146.
125. Shih, R. A., Glass, T. A., Bandeen-Roche, K., Carlson, M. C., Bolla, K. I., Todd, A. C., et al. (2006). Environmental lead exposure and cognitive function in community-dwelling older adults. Neurology, 67, 1556-1562.
126. Shih, R. A., Hu, H., Weisskopf, M. G., & Schwartz, B. S. (2007). Cumulative lead dose and cognitive function in adults: A review of studies that measured both blood lead and bone lead. Environ Health Perspect, 115, 483-492.
127. Sola, C., Barron, S., Tusell, J. M., & Serratosa, J. (2001). The Ca2+/calmodulin system in neuronal hyperexcitability. Int J Biochem Cell Biol, 33, 439-455.
128. Spivey, G. H., Brown, C. P., Baloh, R. W., Campion, D. S., Valentine, J. L., Massey Jr., F. J., et al. (1979). Subclinical effects of chronic increased lead absorption - A prospective study. I. Study design and analysis of symptoms. J Occup Med, 21, 423-429.
129. Stewart, W. F., Schwartz, B. S., Davatzikos, C., Shen, D., Liu, D., Wu, X., et al. (2006). Past adult lead exposure is linked to neurodegeneration measured by brain MRI. Neurology, 66, 1476-1484.
130. Stewart, W. F., Schwartz, B. S., Simon, D., Bolla, K. I., Todd, A. C., & Links, J. (1999). Neurobehavioral function and tibial and chelatable lead levels in 543 former organolead workers. Neurology, 52, 1610-1617.
131. Stewart, W. F., Schwartz, B. S., Simon, D., Kelsey, K., & Todd, A. C. (2002). ApoE genotype, past adult lead exposure, and neurobehavioral function. Environ Health Perspect, 110, 501-505.
132. Stokes, L., Letz, R., Gerr, F., Kolczak, M., McNeill, F. E., Chettle, D. R., et al. (1998). Neurotoxicity in young adults 20 years after childhood exposure to lead: The Bunker Hill experience. Occup Environ Med, 55, 507-516.
133. Stollery, B. T., Banks, H. A., Broadbent, D. E., & Lee, W. R. (1989). Cognitive functioning in lead workers. Br J Ind Med, 46, 698-707.
134. Stollery, B. T., Broadbent, D. E., Banks, H. A., & Lee, W. R. (1991). Short term prospective study of cognitive functioning in lead workers. Br J Ind Med, 48, 739-749.
135. Suszkiw, J. B. (2004). Presynaptic disruption of transmitter release by lead. Neurotoxicology, 25, 599-604.
136. Tang, M. X., Cross, P., Andrews, H., Jacobs, D. M., Small, S., Bell, K., et al. (2001). Incidence of AD in African-Americans, Caribbean Hispanics, and Caucasians in northern Manhattan. Neurology, 56, 49-56.
137. Todd, A. C., & Chettle, D. R. (1994). In vivo X-ray fluorescence of lead in bone: Review and current issues. Environ Health Perspect, 102, 172-177.
138. Todd, A. C., Ehrlich, R. I., Selby, P., & Jordaan, E. (2000). Repeatability of tibia lead measurement by X-Ray fluorescence in a battery-making workforce. Environ Res, 84, 282-289.
139. Todd, A. C., & Landrigan, P. J. (1993). X-ray fluorescence analysis of lead in bone. Environ Health Perspect, 101, 494-495.
140. Todd, A. C., McNeill, F. E., & Fowler, B. A. (1992). In vivo X-ray fluorescence of lead in bone. Environ Res, 59, 326-335.
141. Todd, A. C., Moshier, E. L., Carroll, S., & Casteel, S. W. (2001). Validation of X-ray fluorescence-measured swine femur lead against atomic absorption spectrometry. Environ Health Perspect, 109, 1115-1119.
142. Tsaih, S. W., Korrick, S., Schwartz, J., Lee, M. L., Amarasiriwardena, C., Aro, A., et al. (2001). Influence of bone resorption on the mobilization of lead from bone among middle-aged and elderly men: The Normative Aging Study. Environ Health Perspect, 109, 995-999.
143. Valciukas, J. A., Lilis, R., Fischbein, A., Selikoff, I. J., Eisinger, J., & Blumberg, W. E. (1978). Central nervous system dysfunction due to lead exposure. Science, 201, 465-467.
144. Valciukas, J. A., Lilis, R., Singer, R., Fischbein, A., Anderson, H. A., & Glickman, L. (1980). Lead exposure and behavioral changes: Comparisons of four occupational groups with different levels of lead absorption. Am J Ind Med, 1, 421-426.
145. Virgolini, M. B., Bauter, M. R., Weston, D. D., & Cory-Slechta, D. A. (2006). Permanent alterations in stress responsivity in female offspring subjected to combined maternal lead exposure and/or stress. Neurotoxicology, 27, 11-21.
146. Virgolini, M. B., Chen, K., Weston, D. D., Bauter, M. R., & Cory-Slechta, D. A. (2005). Interactions of chronic lead exposure and intermittent stress: consequences for brain catecholamine systems and associated behaviors and HPA axis function. Toxicol Sci, 87, 469-482.
147. Virgolini, M. B., Volosin, M., Fulginiti, A. S., & Cancela, L. M. (2004). Amphetamine and stress responses in developmentally lead-exposed rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 26, 291-303.
148. Warren, C. (2000). Brush with death: A social history of lead poisoning. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
149. Weaver, V. M., Lee, B. K., Ahn, K. D., Lee, G. S., Todd, A. C., Stewart, W. F., et al. (2003). Associations of lead biomarkers with renal function in Korean lead workers. Occup Environ Med, 60, 551-562.
150. Weiss, B. (2000). Vulnerability to pesticide neurotoxicity is a lifetime issue. Neurotoxicology, 21, 67-73.
151. Weiss, B., & Bellinger, D. C. (2006). Social ecology of children's vulnerability to environmental pollutants. Environ Health Perspect, 114, 1479-1485.
152. Weisskopf, M. G., Proctor, S. P., Wright, R. O., Schwartz, J., Spiro III, A., Sparrow, D., et al. (2007). Cumulative lead exposure and cognitive performance among elderly men. Epidemiology, 18, 59-66.
153. Weisskopf, M. G., Wright, R. O., Schwartz, J., Spiro III, A., Sparrow, D., Aro, A., et al. (2004). Cumulative lead exposure and prospective change in cognition among elderly men: The VA Normative Aging Study. Am J Epidemiol, 160, 1184-1193.
154. Widzowski, D. V., & Cory-Slechta, D. A. (1994). Homogeneity of regional brain lead concentrations. Neurotoxicology, 15, 295-307.
155. Williamson, A. M., & Teo, R. K. (1986). Neurobehavioural effects of occupational exposure to lead. Br J Ind Med, 43, 374-380.
156. Wilson, R. S., Beckett, L. A., Barnes, L. L., Schneider, J. A., Bach, J., Evans, D. A., et al. (2002). Individual differences in rates of change in cognitive abilities of older persons. Psychol Aging, 17, 179-193.
157. Winker, R., Barth, A., Ponocny-Seliger, E., Pilger, A., Osterode, W., & Rudiger, H. W. (2005). No cognitive deficits in men formerly exposed to lead. Wien Klin Wochenschr, 117, 755-760.
158. Winker, R., Ponocny-Seliger, E., Rudiger, H. W., & Barth, A. (2006). Lead exposure levels and duration of exposure absence predict neurobehavioral performance. Int Arch Occup Environ Health, 79, 123-127.
159. Wright, R. O., Tsaih, S. W., Schwartz, J., Spiro III, A., McDonald, K., Weiss, S. T., et al. (2003). Lead exposure biomarkers and mini-mental status exam scores in older men. Epidemiology, 14, 713-718.
160. Xie, C. W. (2004). Calcium-regulated signaling pathways: role in amyloid beta-induced synaptic dysfunction. Neuromolecular Med, 6, 53-64.
161. Yokoyama, K., Araki, S., & Aono, H. (1988). Reversibility of psychological performance in subclinical lead absorption. Neurotoxicology, 9, 405-410.
162. Zheng, W. (2001). Neurotoxicology of the brain barrier system: New implications. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol, 39, 711-719.