Beyond cohesiveness: Reconceptualizing the link between group processes and outcomes in group psychotherapy

Small Group Research

Volumn 38, Issue 5, 2007, Pages 567-592

  Hornsey, Matthew J ^a   Dwyer, Lynndall ^a   Oei, Tian P S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

Author keywords

Cohesiveness; Group processes; Group therapy

Indexed keywords

EID: 36148975282     PISSN: 10464964     EISSN: 15528278     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1046496407304336     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. Amrhein, P.C., Miller, W.R., Yahne, C.E., Palmer, M., & Fulcher, L. (2003). Client commitment language during motivational interviewing predicts drug use outcomes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 862-878.
2. Antonuccio, D.O., Davis, C., Lewinsohn, P., & Breckenridge, J. (1987). Therapist variables related to cohesiveness in a group treatment for depression. Small Group Behavior, 18, 557-564.
3. Asay, T.P., & Lambert, M.J. (1999). The empirical case for the common factors in therapy: Quantitative findings. In M. A. Hubbell, B. L. Duncan, & S. Miller (Eds.), The heart and soul of change: Common factors in effective psychotherapy, medicine, and human services (pp. 33 - 56). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
4. Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51 (6). 1173-1182.
5. Bishop, J.W., & Scott, K. (2000). An examination of organizational and team commitment in a self-directed team environment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85 (3). 439-450.
6. Bloch, S., & Crouch, E. (1985). Therapeutic factors in group psychotherapy. New York: Oxford University Press.
7. Blumer, C.H., & McNamara, J.R. (1985). Preparatory procedures for videotaped feedback to improve social skills. Psychological Reports, 57, 549-550.
8. Bordin, E.S. (1994). Theory and research on the therapeutic working alliance: New directions. In A. O. Horvath & L. S. Greenberg (Eds.), The working alliance: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 13-37). New York: John Wiley.
9. Braaten, L.J. (1989). Predicting positive goal attainment and symptom reduction from early group climate dimensions. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 39 (3). 377-387.
10. Braaten, L.J. (1991). Group cohesion: A new multidimensional model. Group, 15, 39-55.
11. Brewer, M.B. (1981). Ethnocentrism and its role in interpersonal trust. In M. B. Brewer & B. E. Collins (Eds.), Scientific inquiry and the social sciences (pp. 345-360). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
12. Brewer, M.B., & Harasty, A.S. (1996). Seeing groups as entities: The role of perceiver motivation. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition, Vol. 3: The interpersonal context (pp. 347 - 370). New York: Guilford.
13. Budman, S.H., Demby, A., Feldstein, M., Redondo, J., Scherz, B., Bennett, M.J., et al. (1987). Preliminary findings on a new instrument to measure cohesion in group psychotherapy. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 37, 75-94.
14. Budman, S.H., Soldz, S., Demby, A., Feldstein, M., Springer, T., & Davis, M.S. (1989). Cohesion, alliance and outcome in group psychotherapy. Psychiatry, 52, 339-350.
15. Bunch, B.J., Lund, N.L., & Wiggins, F.K. (1983). Self-disclosure and perceived closeness in the development of group process. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 8, 59-66.
16. Burlingame, G.M., Mac Kenzie, K.R., & Strauss, B. (2004). Small group treatment: Evidence for effectiveness and mechanisms of change. In M. Lambert (Ed.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (pp. 647 - 696). New York: John Wiley
17. Butler, T., & Fuhriman, A. (1983). Level of functioning and length of time in treatment variables influencing patients' therapeutic experience in group psychotherapy. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 33 (4). 489-505.
18. Butler, S.F., & Strupp, H.H. (1986). Specific and nonspecific factors in psychotherapy: A problematic paradigm for psychotherapy research. Psychotherapy, 23, 30-40.
19. Byrne, D. (1997). An overview (and underview) of research and theory within the attraction paradigm. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 14 (3). 417-431.
20. Cameron, J.E. (2004). A three-factor model of social identity. Self and Identity, 3, 239-262.
21. Campion, M.A., Medsker, G.J., & Higgs, A.C. (1993). Relations between work group characteristics and effectiveness: Implications for designing effective work groups. Personnel Psychology, 46 (4). 823-850.
22. Carpenter, S., & Radhakrishnan, P. (2002). The relation between allocentrism and perceptions of ingroups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28 (11). 1528-1537.
23. Castano, E., & Yzerbyt, V.Y. (1998). The highs and lows of group homogeneity. Behavioural Processes, 42 (2-3). 219-238.
24. Castano, E., Yzerbyt, V.Y., & Bourguignon, D. (2003). We are one and I like it: The impact of ingroup entitativity on ingroup identification. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33 (6). 735-754.
25. Chase, J.L., & Kelly, M.M. (1993). Adolescents' perceptions of the efficacy of short-term, inpatient group therapy. Journal of Child and Adolescent Group Therapy, 3, 155-161.
26. Chen, F.F., & Kenrick, D.T. (2002). Repulsion or attraction?: Group membership and assumed attitude similarity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83 (1). 111-125.
27. Cialdini, R.B., Brown, S.L., Lewis, B.P., Luce, C., & Neuberg, S.L. (1997). Reinterpreting the empathy-altruism relationship: When one into one equals oneness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73 (3). 481-494.
28. Comeau, D.J., & Griffith, R.L. (2005). Structural interdependence, personality, and organizational citizenship behavior: An examination of person-environment interaction. Personnel Review, 34 (3). 310-330.
29. Correll, J., & Park, P. (2005). A model of the ingroup as a social resource. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9 (4). 341-359.
30. Cox, T.H., Lobel, S.A., & McLeod, P.L. (1991). Effects of ethnic group cultural differences on cooperative and competitive behavior on a group task. Academy of Management Journal, 34 (4). 827-847.
31. De Cremer, D. (2004). The closer we are, the more we are alike: The effect of self-other merging on depersonalized self-perception. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social, 22 (4). 316-325.
32. Devos, T., Comby, L., & Deschamps, J.-C. (1996). Asymmetries in judgements of ingroup and outgroup variability. European Review of Social Psychology, 7, 95-144.
33. Dies, R.R., & Hess, A.K. (1971). An experimental investigation of cohesiveness in marathon and conventional group psychotherapy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 77, 258-262.
34. Doosje, B., Spears, R., & Ellemers, N. (2002). Social identity as both cause and effect: The development of group identification in response to anticipated and actual changes in the intergroup status hierarchy. British Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 57-76.
35. Eisman, B. (1959). Some operational measures of cohesiveness and their interrelations. Human Relations, 12, 183-189.
36. Ellemers, N., Spears, R., & Doosje, B. (Eds.). (1999). Social identity: Context, commitment, content. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
37. Evans, N.J., & Jarvis, P.A. (1986). The group attitude scale: A measure of attraction to group. Small Group Behavior, 17, 203-216.
38. Falloon, I.R. (1981). Interpersonal variables in behavioural group therapy. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 54, 133-141.
39. Fan, E.T., & Gruenfeld, D.H. (1998). When needs outweigh desires: The effects of resource interdependence and reward interdependence on group problem solving. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 20 (1). 45-56.
40. Festinger, L., Schachter, S., & Back, K. (1950). Social pressures in informal groups. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
41. Flowers, J.V., Booraem, C.D., & Hartman, K.A. (1981). Client improvement on higher and lower intensity problems as a function of group cohesiveness. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 18, 246-251.
42. Frank, J.D., & Frank, J.B. (1991). Persuasion and healing: A comparative study of psychotherapy (3 rd ed.). Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press.
43. Geller, J.D. (2003). Self-disclosure in psychoanalytic-existential therapy. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59 (5). 541-554.
44. Gillaspy, J.A., Wright, A.R., Campbell, C., Stokes, S., & Adinoff, B. (2002). Group alliance and cohesion as predictors of drug and alcohol abuse treatment outcomes. Psychotherapy Research, 12, 213-229.
45. Gross, E.F. (1957). An empirical study of the concepts of cohesiveness and compatibility. Unpublished honors thesis, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
46. Grotjahn, M. (1981). Group cohesion as a factor in the therapeutic process. In H. Kellerman (Ed.), Group cohesion: Theoretical and clinical perspectives (pp. 247-253). New York: Grune & Stratton.
47. Gruen, W. (1965). A contribution toward understanding of cohesiveness in small groups. Psychological Reports, 17, 311-322.
48. Hagsrom, W.D. & Selvin, H.C. (1965). Two dimensions of cohesiveness in small groups. Sociometry, 28, 30-43.
49. Hajek, P., Belcher, M., & Stapleton, J. (1985). Enhancing the impact of groups: An evaluation of two group formats for smokers. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24, 289-294.
50. Hand, I., Lamontagne, Y., & Marks, I.M. (1974). Group exposure (flooding) in vivo for agoraphobics. British Journal of Psychiatry, 124, 588-602.
51. Haslam, S.A. (2004). Psychology in organizations: The social identity approach. London: Sage.
52. Haslam, S.A., Oakes, P.J., Turner, J.C., & McGarty, C. (1995). Social categorization and group homogeneity: Changes in the perceived applicability of stereotype content as a function of comparative context and trait favorableness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 34 (2). 139-160.
53. Henry, K.B., Arrow, H., & Carini, B. (1999). A tripartite model of group identification: Theory and measurement. Small Group Research, 30, 558-581.
54. Hill, C.E. (1990). Is individual therapy process really different from group therapy process? Counseling Psychologist, 18 (1). 126-130.
55. Hogg, M.A., & Williams, K.D. (2000). From I to we: Social identity and the collective self. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 4, 81-97.
56. Hook, A., & Andrews, B. (2005). The relationship of non-disclosure in therapy to shame and depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44 (3). 425-438.
57. Hornsey, M.J., Jetten, J., McAuliffe, B.J., & Hogg, M.A. (2006). The impact of individualist and collectivist group norms on evaluations of dissenting group members. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 57-68.
58. Jackson, J.W. (2002). Intergroup attitudes as a function of different dimensions of group identification and perceived intergroup conflict. Self and Identity, 11, 11-33.
59. Jehn, K.A., Northcraft, G.B., & Neale, M.A. (1999). Why differences make a difference: A field study of diversity, conflict, and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44 (4). 741-763.
60. Jetten, J. Branscombe, N.R., Spears, R., & McKimmie, B. (2003). Predicting the paths of peripherals: The interaction of identification and future possibilities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29 (1). 130-140.
61. Jetten, J., Postmes, T., & McAuliffe, B.J. (2002). We're all individuals: Group norms of individualism and collectivism, levels of identification, and identity threat. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 189-207.
62. Jetten, J., Spears, R., & Manstead, A.S.R. (1997). Strength of identification and intergroup differentiation: The influence of group norms. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27 (5). 603-609.
63. Joiner, T.E., Sheldon, K.M., Williams, G. & Pettit, J. (2003). The integration of self-determination principles and scientifically informed treatments is the next tier. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10 (3). 318-319.
64. Kahn, J.H., Achter, J.A., & Shambaugh, E. (2001). Client distress disclosure, characteristics at intake, and outcome in brief counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48 (2). 203-211.
65. Kapp, F.T., Gleser, G., Bressenden, A., Emerson, R., Winget, J.A., & Kashdan, B. (1964). Group participation and self-perceived personality change. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 139, 255-265.
66. Kelman, H.C., & Parloff, M.B. (1957). Interrelations among three criteria of improvement in group therapy: Comfort, effectiveness, and self-awareness. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 54, 281-288.
67. Kipnes, D.R., Piper, W.E., & Joyce, A.S. (2002). Cohesion and outcome in short-term psychodynamic groups for complicated grief. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 52, 483-509.
68. Kirshner, B., Dies, R., & Brown, R. (1978). Effects of experimental manipulation of self-disclosure on group cohesiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 1171-1177.
69. Kivlighan, D.M., Jr., & Coleman, M. (1999). Values, exchange, relationships, group compositions, and leader-member differences: A potpourri of reactions to Dose (1999). Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3 (1). 33-39.
70. Kivlighan, D.M., Jr., & Lilly, R.L. (1997). Developmental changes in group climate as they relate to therapeutic gain. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 1, 208-221.
71. Lambert, M.J., & Bergin, A.E. (1994). The effectiveness of psychotherapy. In A. E. Bergin & S. L. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (4 th ed., pp. 143-189). New York: John Wiley.
72. Lese, K.P., & Mac Nair-Semands, R.R. (2000). The therapeutic factors inventory: Development of a scale. Group, 24, 303-317.
73. Lieberman, M.A., Golant, M., & Altman, T. (2004). Therapeutic norms and patient benefit: Cancer patients in professionally directed support groups. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 8 (4). 265-276.
74. Lieberman, R., Yalom, I.D., & Miles, M. (1973). Encounter groups: First facts. New York: Basic Books.
75. Lott, A.J., & Lott, B.E. (1965). Group cohesiveness as interpersonal attraction: A review of relationships with antecedent and consequent variables. Psychological Bulletin, 64, 259-309.
76. Marziali, E., Munroe-Blum, H., & McCleary, L. (1997). The contribution of group cohesion and group alliance to the outcome of group psychotherapy. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 47, 475-497.
77. McAuliffe, B.J., Jetten, J., Hornsey, M.J., & Hogg, M.A. (2003). Individualist and collectivist group norms: When it's OK to go your own way. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 57-70.
78. McCallum, M., Piper, W.E., Ogrodniczuk, J.S., & Joyce, A.S. (2002). Early process and dropping out from short-term group therapy for complicated grief. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6, 243-254.
79. McDermut, W., Miller, I.W., & Brown, R.A. (2001). The efficacy of group psychotherapy for depression: A meta-analysis and review of the empirical research. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 8, 98-116.
80. McNeill, B.W., May, R., & Lee, V.E. (1987). Perceptions of counselor source characteristics and successful terminators. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 86-89.
81. McRoberts, C., Burlingame, G.M., & Hoag, M.J. (1998). Comparative efficacy of individual and group psychotherapy: A meta-analytic perspective. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 2, 101-117.
82. Moos, R.H. (1986). Group environment scale manual (2 nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
83. Mussell, M.P., Mitchell, J.E., Crosby, R.D., Fulkerson, J.A. Hoberman. H. M., & Romano. J. L. (2000). Commitment to treatment goals in prediction of group cognitive-behavioral therapy treatment outcome for women with bulimia nervosa. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 432-437.
84. Nemeth, C.J. (1995). Dissent as driving cognition, attitudes, and judgments. Social Cognition, 13, 273-291.
85. Newth, S., & Rachman, S. (2001). The concealment of obsessions. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 457-464.
86. Nijstad, B.A., Stroebe, W., & Lodewijkx, F.M. (2003). Production blocking and idea generation: Does blocking interfere with cognitive processes? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39 (6). 531-548.
87. Norton, P.J., & Whittal, M.L. (2004). Thematic similarity and clinical outcome in obsessive-compulsive disorder group treatment. Depression and Anxiety, 20 (4). 195-197.
88. Pearce, J.L., & Gregersen, H.B. (1991). Task interdependence and extrarole behavior: A test of the mediating effects of felt responsibility. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76 (6). 838-844.
89. Persons, J.B., & Burns, D.D. (1985). Mechanisms of action of cognitive therapy: The relative contributions of technical and interpersonal interventions. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9, 539-551.
90. Phillips, S.B. (2005). The role of the bereavement group in the face of 9/11: A self-psychology perspective. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 55 (4). 507-525.
91. Pickett, C.L. (2001). The effects of entitativity beliefs on implicit comparisons between group members. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27 (5). 515-525.
92. Piper, W.E., Marrache, M., Lacroix, R., Richardsen, A.M., & Jones, B.D. (1983). Cohesion as a basic bond in groups. Human Relations, 36, 93-108.
93. Ramamoorthy, N., & Flood, P.C. (2004). Individualism/collectivism, perceived task interdependence and teamwork attitudes among Irish blue-collar employees: A test of the main and moderating effects. Human Relations, 57 (3). 347-366.
94. Roether, H.A., & Peters, J.J. (1972). Cohesiveness and hostility in group psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 128, 1014-1017.
95. Saavedra, R., Earley, C.P., & Van Dyne, L. (1993). Complex interdependence in task-performing groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78 (1). 61-72.
96. Scaturo, D.J. (2004). Fundamental clinical dilemmas in contemporary group psychotherapy. Group Analysis, 37 (2). 201-217.
97. Shipley, R.H. (1977). Effect of a pregroup collective project on the cohesiveness of inpatient therapy groups. Psychological Reports, 41, 79-85.
98. Silbergeld, S., Koenig, G.R., Manderscheid, R.W., Meeker, B.F., & Hornung, C.A. (1975). Assessment of environment-therapy systems: The group atmosphere scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 460-469.
99. Slavin, R.L. (1993). The significance of here-and-now disclosure in promoting cohesion in group psychotherapy. Group, 17, 143-150.
100. Soyez, V., Tatrai, H., Broekaert, E., & Bracke, R. (2004). The implementation of contextual therapy in the therapeutic community for substance abusers: A case study. Journal of Family Therapy, 26, 286-305.
101. Stiles, W.B., Shapiro, D.A., & Elliott, R. (1986). Are all psychotherapies equivalent ? American Psychologist, 41, 165-180.
102. Stokes, J.P. (1983 a). Components of group cohesion: Intermember attraction, instrumental value, and risk taking. Small Group Behavior, 14, 163-173.
103. Stokes, J.P. (1983 b). Toward an understanding of cohesion in personal change groups. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 33, 449-467.
104. Stokes, J.P., Fuehrer, A., & Childs, L. (1983). Group members' self-disclosures: Relation to perceived cohesion. Small Group Behavior, 14, 63-76.
105. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J.C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup relations. In E. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-48). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
106. Tanis, M., & Postmes, T. (2005). A social identity approach to trust: Interpersonal perception, group membership and trusting behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 413-424.
107. Teasdale, J.D., Walsh, P.A., Lancashire, M., & Matthews, A.M. (1977). Group exposure for agoraphobics: A replication. British Journal of Psychiatry, 130, 186-193.
108. Truax, C.B. (1961). The process of group psychotherapy: Relationships between hypothesized therapeutic conditions and interpersonal exploration. Psychological Monographs, 75, 1-35.
109. Tschuschke, V., & Dies, R.R. (1994). Intensive analysis of therapeutic factors and outcome in long-term inpatient groups. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 44, 185-208.
110. Tschuschke, V., & Dies, R.R. (1997). The contribution of feedback to outcome in long-term group psychotherapy. Group, 21, 3-15.
111. Turner, J.C. (1991). Social influence. Milton - Keynes, UK: Open University Press.
112. Turner, J.C. (1999). Some current issues in research on social identity and self-categorization theories. In N. Ellemers, R. Spears, & B. Doosje (Eds.), Social identity: Context, commitment, content (pp. 6-34). Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
113. Upper, D., & Flowers, J.V. (1994). Behavioral group therapy in rehabilitation settings. In J. R. Bedell (Ed.), Psychological assessment and treatment of persons with severe mental disorders (pp. 191-214). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
114. van Andel, P., Erdman, R., Karsdorp, P., Appels, A., & Trijsburg, R. (2003). Group cohesion and working alliance: Prediction of treatment outcome in cardiac patients receiving cognitive behavioral group psychotherapy. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 72, 141-149.
115. Van der Vegt, G., Emans, B.J.M., & Van De Vliert, E. (1998). Motivating effects of task and outcome interdependence in work teams. Group and Organization Management, 23 (2). 124-143.
116. Van der Vegt, G., Emans, B.J.M., & Van De Vliert, E. (2001). Patterns of interdependence in work teams: A two-level investigation of the relations with job and team satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 54 (1). 51-69.
117. van Rijswijk, W., Haslam, S.A., & Ellemers, N. (2006). Who do we think we are? The effects of social context and social identification on in-group stereotyping. British Journal of Social Psychology, 45 (1). 161-174.
118. Voci, A. (2006). The link between identification and in-group favouritism: Effect of threat to social identity and trust-related emotions. British Journal of Social Psychology, 45, 265-284.
119. Wegge, J., & Haslam, A.S. (2005). Improving work motivation and performance in brain-storming groups: The effects of three group goal-setting strategies. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 14 (4). 400-430.
120. Williams, G.G., Gagne, M., Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2002). Facilitating autonomous motivation for smoking cessation. Health Psychology, 21, 40-50.
121. Woody, S.R., & Adessky, R.S. (2002). Therapeutic alliance, group cohesion, and homework compliance during cognitive-behavioral group treatment of social phobia. Behavior Therapy, 33, 5-27.
122. Wright, T.L., & Duncan, D. (1986). Attraction to group, group cohesivenss, and individual outcome: A study of training groups. Small Group Behavior, 17, 487-492.
123. Yalom, I.D. (1995). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy (4 th ed.). New York: Basic Books.
124. Yalom, I.D., Houts, P.S., & Zimerberg, S.M. (1967). Prediction of improvement in group therapy: An exploratory study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 17, 159-168.
125. Yalom, I.D., & Rand, K. (1966). Compatibility and cohesiveness in therapy groups. Archives of General Psychiatry, 15, 267-275.