Beyond SHM and CSR: AID and Related Cytidine Deaminases in the Host Response to Viral Infection

Advances in Immunology

Volumn 94, Issue , 2007, Pages 215-244

  Rosenberg, Brad R ^a   Papavasiliou, F Nina ^a  

^a ROCKEFELLER UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACTIVATION INDUCED CYTIDINE DEAMINASE; APOLIPOPROTEIN B MESSENGER RNA EDITING ENZYME CATALYTIC POLYPEPTIDE 1; APOLIPOPROTEIN B MESSENGER RNA EDITING ENZYME CATALYTIC POLYPEPTIDE 3G; CYTIDINE DEAMINASE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ADENO ASSOCIATED VIRUS; ANTIVIRAL ACTIVITY; CLASS SWITCH RECOMBINATION; ENZYME ACTIVITY; EPSTEIN BARR VIRUS; GENETIC RECOMBINATION; HEPATITIS B VIRUS; HEPATITIS C VIRUS; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNE RESPONSE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN FUNCTION; RETROVIRUS; REVIEW; SOMATIC HYPERMUTATION; T LYMPHOTROPIC VIRUS 1; VIRUS INFECTION;

ANIMALS; CYTIDINE DEAMINASE; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; IMMUNOGLOBULIN CLASS SWITCHING; SOMATIC HYPERMUTATION, IMMUNOGLOBULIN; VIRUS DISEASES;

EID: 34249781408     PISSN: 00652776     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2776(06)94007-3     Document Type: Review

References (128)

1. Abudu A., Takaori-Kondo A., Izumi T., Shirakawa K., Kobayashi M., Sasada A., Fukunaga K., and Uchiyama T. Murine retrovirus escapes from murine APOBEC3 via two distinct novel mechanisms. Curr. Biol. 16 (2006) 1565-1570
2. Alter M.J., Kruszon-Moran D., Nainan O.V., McQuillan G.M., Gao F., Moyer L.A., Kaslow R.A., and Margolis H.S. The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1988 through 1994. N. Engl. J. Med. 341 (1999) 556-562
3. Berns K.I. Parvovirus replication. Microbiol. Rev. 54 (1990) 316-329
4. Berns K.I. In: Fields B.N., Knipe D.M., and Howley P.M. (Eds). "Fields Virology" (1996), Lipincott-Raven, Philadelphia 2173
5. Bishop K.N., Holmes R.K., Sheehy A.M., Davidson N.O., Cho S.J., and Malim M.H. Cytidine deamination of retroviral DNA by diverse APOBEC proteins. Curr. Biol. 14 (2004) 1392-1396
6. Bishop K.N., Holmes R.K., and Malim M.H. Antiviral potency of APOBEC proteins does not correlate with cytidine deamination. J. Virol. 80 (2006) 8450-8458
7. Bogerd H.P., Doehle B.P., Wiegand H.L., and Cullen B.R. A single amino acid difference in the host APOBEC3G protein controls the primate species specificity of HIV type 1 virion infectivity factor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101 (2004) 3770-3774
8. Bogerd H.P., Wiegand H.L., Doehle B.P., Lueders K.K., and Cullen B.R. APOBEC3A and APOBEC3B are potent inhibitors of LTR-retrotransposon function in human cells. Nucleic Acids Res. 34 (2006) 89-95
9. Bonvin M., Achermann F., Greeve I., Stroka D., Keogh A., Inderbitzin D., Candinas D., Sommer P., Wain-Hobson S., Vartanian J.P., and Greeve J. Interferon-inducible expression of APOBEC3 editing enzymes in human hepatocytes and inhibition of hepatitis B virus replication. Hepatology 43 (2006) 1364-1374
10. Bourc'his D., and Bestor T.H. Meiotic catastrophe and retrotransposon reactivation in male germ cells lacking Dnmt3L. Nature 431 (2004) 96-99
11. Brouha B., Schustak J., Badge R.M., Lutz-Prigge S., Farley A.H., Moran J.V., and Kazazian Jr. H.H. Hot L1s account for the bulk of retrotransposition in the human population. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100 (2003) 5280-5285
12. Chelico L., Pham P., Calabrese P., and Goodman M.F. APOBEC3G DNA deaminase acts processively 3′ → 5′ on single-stranded DNA. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 13 (2006) 392-399
13. Chen H., Lilley C.E., Yu Q., Lee D.V., Chou J., Narvaiza I., Landau N.R., and Weitzman M.D. APOBEC3A is a potent inhibitor of adeno-associated virus and retrotransposons. Curr. Biol. 16 (2006) 480-485
14. Chiu Y.L., Soros V.B., Kreisberg J.F., Stopak K., Yonemoto W., and Greene W.C. Cellular APOBEC3G restricts HIV-1 infection in resting CD4+ T cells. Nature 435 (2005) 108-114
15. Conticello S.G., Harris R.S., and Neuberger M.S. The Vif protein of HIV triggers degradation of the human antiretroviral DNA deaminase APOBEC3G. Curr. Biol. 13 (2003) 2009-2013
16. Conticello S.G., Thomas C.J., Petersen-Mahrt S.K., and Neuberger M.S. Evolution of the AID/APOBEC family of polynucleotide (deoxy)cytidine deaminases. Mol. Biol. Evol. 22 (2005) 367-377
17. Cormier E.G., Tsamis F., Kajumo F., Durso R.J., Gardner J.P., and Dragic T. CD81 is an entry coreceptor for hepatitis C virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101 (2004) 7270-7274
18. Cullen B.R. HIV-1 Vif: Counteracting innate antiretroviral defenses. Mol. Ther. 8 (2003) 525-527
19. Dang Y., Wang X., Esselman W.J., and Zheng Y.H. Identification of APOBEC3DE as another antiretroviral factor from the human APOBEC family. J. Virol. 80 (2006) 10522-10533
20. De Vita S., De Re V., Sansonno D., Gloghini A., Gasparotto D., Libra M., Sacco S., Carbone A., Ferraccioli G., and Boiocchi M. Lack of HCV infection in malignant cells refutes the hypothesis of a direct transforming action of the virus in the pathogenesis of HCV-associated B-cell NHLs. Tumori 88 (2002) 400-407
21. Dedeoglu F., Horwitz B., Chaudhuri J., Alt F.W., and Geha R.S. Induction of activation-induced cytidine deaminase gene expression by IL-4 and CD40 ligation is dependent on STAT6 and NFkappaB. Int. Immunol. 16 (2004) 395-404
22. Deininger P.L., and Batzer M.A. Mammalian retroelements. Genome Res. 12 (2002) 1455-1465
23. Delebecque F., Suspene R., Calattini S., Casartelli N., Saib A., Froment A., Wain-Hobson S., Gessain A., Vartanian J.P., and Schwartz O. Restriction of foamy viruses by APOBEC cytidine deaminases. J. Virol. 80 (2006) 605-614
24. Delelis O., Lehmann-Che J., and Saib A. Foamy viruses-a world apart. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 7 (2004) 400-406
25. Diaz M., Greenberg A.S., and Flajnik M.F. Somatic hypermutation of the new antigen receptor gene (NAR) in the nurse shark does not generate the repertoire: Possible role in antigen-driven reactions in the absence of germinal centers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95 (1998) 14343-14348
26. Dickerson S.K., Market E., Besmer E., and Papavasiliou F.N. AID mediates hypermutation by deaminating single stranded DNA. J. Exp. Med. 197 (2003) 1291-1296
27. Doehle B.P., Schafer A., and Cullen B.R. Human APOBEC3B is a potent inhibitor of HIV-1 infectivity and is resistant to HIV-1 Vif. Virology 339 (2005) 281-288
28. Dustin L.B., and Rice C.M. (2006) Personal communication
29. Dutko J.A., Schafer A., Kenny A.E., Cullen B.R., and Curcio M.J. Inhibition of a yeast LTR retrotransposon by human APOBEC3 cytidine deaminases. Curr. Biol. 15 (2005) 661-666
30. Epeldegui M., Hung Y.P., McQuay A., Ambinder R.F., and Martinez-Maza O. Infection of human B cells with Epstein-Barr virus results in the expression of somatic hypermutation-inducing molecules and in the accrual of oncogene mutations. Mol. Immunol. 44 (2006) 934-942
31. Esnault C., Heidmann O., Delebecque F., Dewannieux M., Ribet D., Hance A.J., Heidmann T., and Schwartz O. APOBEC3G cytidine deaminase inhibits retrotransposition of endogenous retroviruses. Nature 433 (2005) 430-433
32. Esnault C., Millet J., Schwartz O., and Heidmann T. Dual inhibitory effects of APOBEC family proteins on retrotransposition of mammalian endogenous retroviruses. Nucleic Acids Res. 34 (2006) 1522-1531
33. Fearon D.T., and Carter R.H. The CD19/CR2/TAPA-1 complex of B lymphocytes: Linking natural to acquired immunity. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 13 (1995) 127-149
34. Feuer G., and Green P.L. Comparative biology of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) and HTLV-2. Oncogene 24 (2005) 5996-6004
35. Ganem D. In: Fields B.N., Knipe D.M., and Howley P.M. (Eds). "Fields Virology" (1996), Lipincott-Raven, Philadelphia 2703
36. Gil Y., Levy-Nabot S., Steinitz M., and Laskov R. Somatic mutations and activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) expression in established rheumatoid factor-producing lymphoblastoid cell line. Mol. Immunol. 44 (2007) 494-505
37. Gires O., Zimber-Strobl U., Gonnella R., Ueffing M., Marschall G., Zeidler R., Pich D., and Hammerschmidt W. Latent membrane protein 1 of Epstein-Barr virus mimics a constitutively active receptor molecule. EMBO J. 16 (1997) 6131-6140
38. Goncalves M.A. Adeno-associated virus: From defective virus to effective vector. Virol. J. 2 (2005) 43
39. Gourzi P., Leonova T., and Papavasiliou F.N. Viral induction of AID is independent of the interferon and the Toll-like receptor signaling pathways but requires NFκB. J. Exp. Med. 204 2 (2007) 259-265
40. Gourzi P., Leonova T., and Papavasiliou F.N. A role for activation-induced cytidine deaminase in the host response against a transforming retrovirus. Immunity 24 (2006) 779-786
41. Gu Y., and Sundquist W.I. Good to CU. Nature 424 (2003) 21-22
42. Harris R.S., Bishop K.N., Sheehy A.M., Craig H.M., Petersen-Mahrt S.K., Watt I.N., Neuberger M.S., and Malim M.H. DNA deamination mediates innate immunity to retroviral infection. Cell 113 (2003) 803-809
43. He B., Raab-Traub N., Casali P., and Cerutti A. EBV-encoded latent membrane protein 1 cooperates with BAFF/BLyS and APRIL to induce T cell-independent Ig heavy chain class switching. J. Immunol. 171 (2003) 5215-5224
44. Hinds-Frey K.R., Nishikata H., Litman R.T., and Litman G.W. Somatic variation precedes extensive diversification of germline sequences and combinatorial joining in the evolution of immunoglobulin heavy chain diversity. J. Exp. Med. 178 (1993) 815-824
45. Honda K., Yanai H., Takaoka A., and Taniguchi T. Regulation of the type I IFN induction: A current view. Int. Immunol. 17 (2005) 1367-1378
46. Hughes J.F., and Coffin J.M. Evidence for genomic rearrangements mediated by human endogenous retroviruses during primate evolution. Nat. Genet. 29 (2001) 487-489
47. Jarmuz A., Chester A., Bayliss J., Gisbourne J., Dunham I., Scott J., and Navaratnam N. An anthropoid-specific locus of orphan C to U RNA-editing enzymes on chromosome 22. Genomics 79 (2002) 285-296
48. Johnson W.E., and Coffin J.M. Constructing primate phylogenies from ancient retrovirus sequences. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96 (1999) 10254-10260
49. Kazazian Jr. H.H. Mobile elements: Drivers of genome evolution. Science 303 (2004) 1626-1632
50. Ketting R.F., and Plasterk R.H. A genetic link between co-suppression and RNA interference in C. elegans. Nature 404 (2000) 296-298
51. Kilger E., Kieser A., Baumann M., and Hammerschmidt W. Epstein-Barr virus-mediated B-cell proliferation is dependent upon latent membrane protein 1, which simulates an activated CD40 receptor. EMBO J. 17 (1998) 1700-1709
52. Kobayashi M., Takaori-Kondo A., Shindo K., Abudu A., Fukunaga K., and Uchiyama T. APOBEC3G targets specific virus species. J. Virol. 78 (2004) 8238-8244
53. Kou T., Marusawa H., Kinoshita K., Endo Y., Okazaki I.M., Ueda Y., Kodama Y., Haga H., Ikai I., and Chiba T. Expression of activation-induced cytidine deaminase in human hepatocytes during hepatocarcinogenesis. Int. J. Cancer 120 3 (2007) 469-476
54. Kremer M., Bittner A., and Schnierle B.S. Human APOBEC3G incorporation into murine leukemia virus particles. Virology 337 (2005) 175-182
55. Kuppers R. B cells under influence: Transformation of B cells by Epstein-Barr virus. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 3 (2003) 801-812
56. Kuppers R., and Dalla-Favera R. Mechanisms of chromosomal translocations in B cell lymphomas. Oncogene 20 (2001) 5580-5594
57. Lander E.S., Linton L.M., Birren B., Nusbaum C., Zody M.C., Baldwin J., Devon K., Dewar K., Doyle M., FitzHugh W., Funke R., Gage D., et al. Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nature 409 (2001) 860-921
58. Lauer G.M., and Walker B.D. Hepatitis C virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 345 (2001) 41-52
59. Lecossier D., Bouchonnet F., Clavel F., and Hance A.J. Hypermutation of HIV-1 DNA in the absence of the Vif protein. Science 300 (2003) 1112
60. Levy S., Todd S.C., and Maecker H.T. CD81 (TAPA-1): A molecule involved in signal transduction and cell adhesion in the immune system. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 16 (1998) 89-109
61. Li Z., Crouch E., Takizawa M., Gourzi P., Feigenbaum L., Papavasiliou F.N., Janz S., and Casselas R. Regulation of AID in the immune response. J. Exp. Med. (2007) in press
62. Liddament M.T., Brown W.L., Schumacher A.J., and Harris R.S. APOBEC3F properties and hypermutation preferences indicate activity against HIV-1 in vivo. Curr. Biol. 14 (2004) 1385-1391
63. Lindenbach B.D., Evans M.J., Syder A.J., Wolk B., Tellinghuisen T.L., Liu C.C., Maruyama T., Hynes R.O., Burton D.R., McKeating J.A., and Rice C.M. Complete replication of hepatitis C virus in cell culture. Science 309 (2005) 623-626
64. Lindenbach B.D., Meuleman P., Ploss A., Vanwolleghem T., Syder A.J., McKeating J.A., Lanford R.E., Feinstone S.M., Major M.E., Leroux-Roels G., and Rice C.M. Cell culture-grown hepatitis C virus is infectious in vivo and can be recultured in vitro. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103 (2006) 3805-3809
65. Linial M.L. Foamy viruses are unconventional retroviruses. J. Virol. 73 (1999) 1747-1755
66. Lochelt M., Muranyi W., and Flugel R.M. Human foamy virus genome possesses an internal, Bel-1-dependent and functional promoter. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90 (1993) 7317-7321
67. Lochelt M., Romen F., Bastone P., Muckenfuss H., Kirchner N., Kim Y.B., Truyen U., Rosler U., Battenberg M., Saib A., Flory E., Cichutek K., and Munk C. The antiretroviral activity of APOBEC3 is inhibited by the foamy virus accessory Bet protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102 (2005) 7982-7987
68. Machida K., Cheng K.T., Sung V.M., Shimodaira S., Lindsay K.L., Levine A.M., Lai M.Y., and Lai M.M. Hepatitis C virus induces a mutator phenotype: Enhanced mutations of immunoglobulin and protooncogenes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101 (2004) 4262-4267
69. Machida K., Cheng K.T., Pavio N., Sung V.M., and Lai M.M. Hepatitis C virus E2-CD81 interaction induces hypermutation of the immunoglobulin gene in B cells. J. Virol. 79 (2005) 8079-8089
70. Madani N., and Kabat D. An endogenous inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus in human lymphocytes is overcome by the viral Vif protein. J. Virol. 72 (1998) 10251-10255
71. Mahieux R., Suspene R., Delebecque F., Henry M., Schwartz O., Wain-Hobson S., and Vartanian J.P. Extensive editing of a small fraction of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 genomes by four APOBEC3 cytidine deaminases. J. Gen. Virol. 86 (2005) 2489-2494
72. Mangeat B., Turelli P., Caron G., Friedli M., Perrin L., and Trono D. Broad antiretroviral defence by human APOBEC3G through lethal editing of nascent reverse transcripts. Nature 424 (2003) 99-103
73. Mangeat B., Turelli P., Liao S., and Trono D. A single amino acid determinant governs the species-specific sensitivity of APOBEC3G to Vif action. J. Biol. Chem. 279 (2004) 14481-14483
74. Mariani R., Chen D., Schrofelbauer B., Navarro F., Konig R., Bollman B., Munk C., Nymark-McMahon H., and Landau N.R. Species-specific exclusion of APOBEC3G from HIV-1 virions by Vif. Cell 114 (2003) 21-31
75. Marin M., Rose K.M., Kozak S.L., and Kabat D. HIV-1 Vif protein binds the editing enzyme APOBEC3G and induces its degradation. Nat. Med. 9 (2003) 1398-1403
76. Meiering C.D., and Linial M.L. Reactivation of a complex retrovirus is controlled by a molecular switch and is inhibited by a viral protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99 (2002) 15130-15135
77. Mikl M.C., Watt I.N., Lu M., Reik W., Davies S.L., Neuberger M.S., and Rada C. Mice deficient in APOBEC2 and APOBEC3. Mol. Cell. Biol. 25 (2005) 7270-7277
78. Moretta A., Comoli P., Montagna D., Gasparoni A., Percivalle E., Carena I., Revello M.G., Gerna G., Mingrat G., Locatelli F., Rondini G., and Maccario R. High frequency of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) lymphoblastoid cell line-reactive lymphocytes in cord blood: Evaluation of cytolytic activity and IL-2 production. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 107 (1997) 312-320
79. Mosialos G., Birkenbach M., Yalamanchili R., VanArsdale T., Ware C., and Kieff E. The Epstein-Barr virus transforming protein LMP1 engages signaling proteins for the tumor necrosis factor receptor family. Cell 80 (1995) 389
80. Muckenfuss H., Hamdorf M., Held U., Perkovic M., Lower J., Cichutek K., Flory E., Schumann G.G., and Munk C. APOBEC3 proteins inhibit human LINE-1 retrotransposition. J. Biol. Chem. 281 (2006) 22161-22172
81. Muramatsu M., Sankaranand V.S., Anant S., Sugai M., Kinoshita K., Davidson N.O., and Honjo T. Specific expression of activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID), a novel member of the RNA-editing deaminase family in germinal center B cells. J. Biol. Chem. 274 (1999) 18470-18476
82. Nakagawa K., and Harrison L.C. The potential roles of endogenous retroviruses in autoimmunity. Immunol. Rev. 152 (1996) 193-236
83. Navaratnam N., Morrison J.R., Bhattacharya S., Patel D., Funahashi T., Giannoni F., Teng B.B., Davidson N.O., and Scott J. The p27 catalytic subunit of the apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme is a cytidine deaminase. J. Biol. Chem. 268 (1993) 20709-20712
84. Navarro F., Bollman B., Chen H., Konig R., Yu Q., Chiles K., and Landau N.R. Complementary function of the two catalytic domains of APOBEC3G. Virology 333 (2005) 374-386
85. Neuberger M.S., and Scott J. Immunology: RNA editing AIDs antibody diversification?. Science 289 (2000) 1705-1706
86. Newman E.N., Holmes R.K., Craig H.M., Klein K.C., Lingappa J.R., Malim M.H., and Sheehy A.M. Antiviral function of APOBEC3G can be dissociated from cytidine deaminase activity. Curr. Biol. 15 (2005) 166-170
87. Ni T.H., McDonald W.F., Zolotukhin I., Melendy T., Waga S., Stillman B., and Muzyczka N. Cellular proteins required for adeno-associated virus DNA replication in the absence of adenovirus coinfection. J. Virol. 72 (1998) 2777-2787
88. Ostertag E.M., and Kazazian Jr. H.H. Biology of mammalian L1 retrotransposons. Annu. Rev. Genet. 35 (2001) 501-538
89. Pancer Z., and Cooper M.D. The evolution of adaptive immunity. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 24 (2006) 497-518
90. Richardson J.H., Edwards A.J., Cruickshank J.K., Rudge P., and Dalgleish A.G. In vivo cellular tropism of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1. J. Virol. 64 (1990) 5682-5687
91. Rosenberg N. Abl-mediated transformation, immunoglobulin gene rearrangements and arrest of B lymphocyte differentiation. Semin. Cancer Biol. 5 (1994) 95-102
92. Rosler C., Kock J., Kann M., Malim M.H., Blum H.E., Baumert T.F., and von Weizsacker F. APOBEC-mediated interference with hepadnavirus production. Hepatology 42 (2005) 301-309
93. Russell R.A., Wiegand H.L., Moore M.D., Schafer A., McClure M.O., and Cullen B.R. Foamy virus Bet proteins function as novel inhibitors of the APOBEC3 family of innate antiretroviral defense factors. J. Virol. 79 (2005) 8724-8731
94. Sasada A., Takaori-Kondo A., Shirakawa K., Kobayashi M., Abudu A., Hishizawa M., Imada K., Tanaka Y., and Uchiyama T. APOBEC3G targets human T-cell leukemia virus type 1. Retrovirology 2 (2005) 32
95. Sassaman D.M., Dombroski B.A., Moran J.V., Kimberland M.L., Naas T.P., DeBerardinis R.J., Gabriel A., Swergold G.D., and Kazazian Jr. H.H. Many human L1 elements are capable of retrotransposition. Nat. Genet. 16 (1997) 37-43
96. Sawyer S.L., Emerman M., and Malik H.S. Ancient adaptive evolution of the primate antiviral DNA-editing enzyme APOBEC3G. PLoS Biol. 2 (2004) E275
97. Schrofelbauer B., Chen D., and Landau N.R. A single amino acid of APOBEC3G controls its species-specific interaction with virion infectivity factor (Vif). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101 (2004) 3927-3932
98. Schumacher A.J., Nissley D.V., and Harris R.S. APOBEC3G hypermutates genomic DNA and inhibits Ty1 retrotransposition in yeast. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102 (2005) 9854-9859
99. Sheehy A.M., Gaddis N.C., Choi J.D., and Malim M.H. Isolation of a human gene that inhibits HIV-1 infection and is suppressed by the viral Vif protein. Nature 418 (2002) 646-650
100. Sheehy A.M., Gaddis N.C., and Malim M.H. The antiretroviral enzyme APOBEC3G is degraded by the proteasome in response to HIV-1 Vif. Nat. Med. 9 (2003) 1404-1407
101. Sijen T., and Plasterk R.H. Transposon silencing in the Caenorhabditis elegans germ line by natural RNAi. Nature 426 (2003) 310-314
102. Simon J.H., Gaddis N.C., Fouchier R.A., and Malim M.H. Evidence for a newly discovered cellular anti-HIV-1 phenotype. Nat. Med. 4 (1998) 1397-1400
103. Simon V., Zennou V., Murray D., Huang Y., Ho D.D., and Bieniasz P.D. Natural variation in Vif: Differential impact on APOBEC3G/3F and a potential role in HIV-1 diversification. PLoS Pathog. 1 (2005) e6
104. Stopak K., de Noronha C., Yonemoto W., and Greene W.C. HIV-1 Vif blocks the antiviral activity of APOBEC3G by impairing both its translation and intracellular stability. Mol. Cell 12 (2003) 591-601
105. Sung V.M., Shimodaira S., Doughty A.L., Picchio G.R., Can H., Yen T.S., Lindsay K.L., Levine A.M., and Lai M.M. Establishment of B-cell lymphoma cell lines persistently infected with hepatitis C virus in vivo and in vitro: The apoptotic effects of virus infection. J. Virol. 77 (2003) 2134-2146
106. Suspene R., Guetard D., Henry M., Sommer P., Wain-Hobson S., and Vartanian J.P. Extensive editing of both hepatitis B virus DNA strands by APOBEC3 cytidine deaminases in vitro and in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102 (2005) 8321-8326
107. Tabara H., Sarkissian M., Kelly W.G., Fleenor J., Grishok A., Timmons L., Fire A., and Mello C.C. The rde-1 gene, RNA interference, and transposon silencing in C. elegans. Cell 99 (1999) 123-132
108. Tanaka Y., Marusawa H., Seno H., Matsumoto Y., Ueda Y., Kodama Y., Endo Y., Yamauchi J., Matsumoto T., Takaori-Kondo A., Ikai I., and Chiba T. Anti-viral protein APOBEC3G is induced by interferon-alpha stimulation in human hepatocytes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 341 (2006) 314-319
109. Taruscio D., and Mantovani A. Factors regulating endogenous retroviral sequences in human and mouse. Cytogenet Genome Res. 105 (2004) 351-362
110. Teng B., Burant C.F., and Davidson N.O. Molecular cloning of an apolipoprotein B messenger RNA editing protein. Science 260 (1993) 1816-1819
111. Tobollik S., Meyer L., Buettner M., Klemmer S., Kempkes B., Kremmer E., Niedobitek G., and Jungnickel B. Epstein-Barr-virus nuclear antigen 2 inhibits AID expression during EBV-driven B cell growth. Blood 108 12 (2006) 3859-3864
112. Turelli P., and Trono D. Editing at the crossroad of innate and adaptive immunity. Science 307 (2005) 1061-1065
113. Turelli P., Mangeat B., Jost S., Vianin S., and Trono D. Inhibition of hepatitis B virus replication by APOBEC3G. Science 303 (2004) 1829
114. Turelli P., Vianin S., and Trono D. The innate antiretroviral factor APOBEC3G does not affect human LINE-1 retrotransposition in a cell culture assay. J. Biol. Chem. 279 (2004) 43371-43373
115. Walsh C.P., Chaillet J.R., and Bestor T.H. Transcription of IAP endogenous retroviruses is constrained by cytosine methylation. Nat. Genet. 20 (1998) 116-117
116. Waterston R.H., Lindblad-Toh K., Birney E., Rogers J., Abril J.F., Agarwal P., Agarwala R., Ainscough R., Alexandersson M., An P., Antonarakis S.E., Attwood J., et al. Initial sequencing and comparative analysis of the mouse genome. Nature 420 (2002) 520-562
117. Wieland S., Thimme R., Purcell R.H., and Chisari F.V. Genomic analysis of the host response to hepatitis B virus infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101 (2004) 6669-6674
118. Wilson A.D., and Morgan A.J. Primary immune responses by cord blood CD4(+) T cells and NK cells inhibit Epstein-Barr virus B-cell transformation in vitro. J. Virol. 76 (2002) 5071-5081
119. Wong D.K., Cheung A.M., O'Rourke K., Naylor C.D., Detsky A.S., and Heathcote J. Effect of alpha-interferon treatment in patients with hepatitis B e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B. A meta-analysis. Ann. Intern. Med. 119 (1993) 312-323
120. Xu H., Svarovskaia E.S., Barr R., Zhang Y., Khan M.A., Strebel K., and Pathak V.K. A single amino acid substitution in human APOBEC3G antiretroviral enzyme confers resistance to HIV-1 virion infectivity factor-induced depletion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101 (2004) 5652-5657
121. Young L.S., and Rickinson A.B. Epstein-Barr virus: 40 years on. Nat. Rev. Cancer 4 (2004) 757-768
122. Yu Q., Konig R., Pillai S., Chiles K., Kearney M., Palmer S., Richman D., Coffin J.M., and Landau N.R. Single-strand specificity of APOBEC3G accounts for minus-strand deamination of the HIV genome. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 11 (2004) 435-442
123. Yu X., Yu Y., Liu B., Luo K., Kong W., Mao P., and Yu X.F. Induction of APOBEC3G ubiquitination and degradation by an HIV-1 Vif-Cul5-SCF complex. Science 302 (2003) 1056-1060
124. Zennou V., and Bieniasz P.D. Comparative analysis of the antiretroviral activity of APOBEC3G and APOBEC3F from primates. Virology 349 (2006) 31-40
125. Zhang H., Yang B., Pomerantz R.J., Zhang C., Arunachalam S.C., and Gao L. The cytidine deaminase CEM15 induces hypermutation in newly synthesized HIV-1 DNA. Nature 424 (2003) 94-98
126. Zhang J., and Webb D.M. Rapid evolution of primate antiviral enzyme APOBEC3G. Hum. Mol. Genet. 13 (2004) 1785-1791
127. Zhang J., Randall G., Higginbottom A., Monk P., Rice C.M., and McKeating J.A. CD81 is required for hepatitis C virus glycoprotein-mediated viral infection. J. Virol. 78 (2004) 1448-1455
128. Zimber-Strobl U., Strobl L.J., Meitinger C., Hinrichs R., Sakai T., Furukawa T., Honjo T., and Bornkamm G.W. Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen 2 exerts its transactivating function through interaction with recombination signal binding protein RBP-J kappa, the homologue of Drosophila Suppressor of Hairless. EMBO J. 13 (1994) 4973-4982