The potential roles of endogenous retroviruses in autoimmunity

Immunological Reviews

Volumn , Issue 152, 1996, Pages 193-236

  Nakagawa, Kaku ^a   Harrison, Leonard C ^a  

^a ROYAL MELBOURNE HOSPITAL   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DNA; GENE PRODUCT; SUPERANTIGEN; VIRUS ENVELOPE PROTEIN; VIRUS PROTEIN;

AUTOIMMUNITY; CROSS REACTION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ETIOLOGY; FRAMESHIFT MUTATION; GENE DELETION; GENETIC RECOMBINATION; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; HUMAN T CELL LEUKEMIA VIRUS 1; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOLOGICAL TOLERANCE; IMMUNOMODULATION; LONG TERMINAL REPEAT; MOUSE MAMMARY TUMOR ONCOVIRUS; NONHUMAN; PARANEOPLASTIC SYNDROME; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; RETROVIRUS; REVIEW; STOP CODON; THYMUS; TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION; VIRUS GENOME; VIRUS MORPHOLOGY; VIRUS PARTICLE; ANIMAL; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; GENETICS; IMMUNOLOGY;

ANIMALS; AUTOIMMUNITY; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, VIRAL; HUMANS; RETROVIRIDAE;

EID: 0029658207     PISSN: 01052896     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.1996.tb00917.x     Document Type: Review

References (219)

1. Adachi, M., Watanabe-Fukunaga, R. & Nagata, S. (1993) Aberrant transcription caused by the insertion of an early transposable element in an intron of the Fas antigen gene of lpr mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 90, 1756-1760.
2. Amariglio, N. & Rechavi, G. (1993) Insertional mutagenesis by transposable elements in the mammalian genome. Env. Mol. Mutagen. 21, 212-218.
3. Anderson, N. E., Rosenblum, M. K. & Posner, J. B. (1988) Paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration: clinical immunological correlations. Ann. Neurol. 24, 559-567.
4. Åsbakk, K., Bergh, K. & Iversen, O.-J. (1990) The psoriasis-associated antigen, pso p27, participates in the formation of complement activating immune-complexes in psoriatic scale. APMIS 98, 143-149.
5. Åsbakk, K. & Iversen, O.-J. (1988) Monoclonal antibodies against the major internal protein, p27, of a psoriasis-associated retrovirus-like particle. Scand. J. Immunol. 28, 195-202.
6. Åsbakk, K., Rødahi, E., Lysvand, H. & Iversen, O.-J. (1991) An antigenic determinant is shared by psoriasis-associated p27 antigen and the Fc part of human IgG. APMIS 99, 551-556.
7. Aziz., D. C., Hannu, Z. & Jolicoeur, P. (1989) Severe immunodeficiency disease induced by a defective murine leukaemia virus. Nature 338, 505-508.
8. Baccala, R., Kono, D. H., Walker, S., Balderas, R. S. & Theofilopoulos, A. N. (1991) Genomically imposed and somatically modified human thymocyte VO gene repertoires. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 2908-2912.
9. Baltimore, D. (1985) Retroviruses and retrotransposons: the role of reverse transcription in shaping the eukaryotic genome. Cell 40, 481-482.
10. Banki, K., Agarwal, R. K., Tatum, A. H., Sciubba, J. J., Phillips, P. E. & Perl, A. (1994) Autoantigenicity and expression of a human endogenous retroviral element, HRES-1. Abstracts of scientific presentations. Regional Meetings of the American College of Rheumatology. Arthritis Rheum. 37 (suppl).
11. Banki, K., Maceda, J., Hurley, E., Ablonczy, E., Mattson, D. H., Szegedy, L., Hung, C. & Perl, A. (1992) Human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV)-related endogenous sequence, HREV-1, encodes a 28-kDa protein: a possible autoantigen for HTLV-I gag-reactive autoantibodies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 1939-1943.
12. Bartman, T., Murasko, D. M., Sieck, T. G., Turturro, A., Hart, R. & Blank, K. J. (1994) A murine leukemia virus expressed in aged DBA/2 mice is derived by recombination of the Emv-3 locus and another endogenous gag sequence. Virology 203, 1-7.
13. de Bergeyck, V., De Plaen, E., Chomez, P., Boon, T. & van Pel, A. (1994) An intracisternal A-particle sequence codes for an antigen recognized by syngeneic cytolytic T lymphocytes on a mouse spontaneous leukemia. Eur. J. Immunol. 24, 2203-2212.
14. Boller, K., König, H., Sauter, M., Mueller-Lantzsch, N., Löwer, R., Löwer, J. & Kurth, R. (1993) Evidence that HERV-K is the endogenous retrovirus sequence that codes for the human teratocarcinoma-derived retrovirus HTDV. Virology 196, 349-353.
15. Bonmassar, E., Bonmassar, A., Vadlamudi, S. & Goldin, A. (1970) Immunological alteration of leukemic cells in vivo after treatment with an antitumor drug. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 66, 1089-1095.
16. + T lymphocytes from MRL/lpr mice are resistant to receptor-mediated tolerance and apoptosis. J. Immunol. 151, 7233-7239.
17. Brodsky, I., Foley, B., Haines, D., Johnston, J., Cuddy, K. & Gillespie, D. (1993) Expression of HERV-K proviruses in human leukocytes. Blood 81, 2369-2374.
18. Bronson, D. L., Fraley, E. E., Fogh, J. & Kalter, S. S. (1979) Induction of retrovirus particles in human testicular tumor (Tera-1) cell cultures: an electron microscopic study. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 63, 337-339.
19. Brookes, S. M., Pandolfino, Y. A., Mitchell, T. J., Venables, P. J. W., Shattles, W. G., Clark, D.A., Entwistle, A. & Maini, R.W. (1992) The immune response to and expression of cross-reactive retroviral gag sequences in autoimmune disease. Br. J. Rheumatol. 31, 735-742.
20. Buonaguro, L., Barillari, G., Chang, H. K., Bohan, C. A., Kao, V., Morgan, R., Gallo, R. C. & Ensoli, B. (1992) Effects of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 tat protein on the expression of inflammatory cytokines. J. Virol. 66, 7159-7167.
21. Canaani, E., Dreazen, O., Klar, A., Rechavi, G., Ram, D., Cohen, J. B. & GiVol, D. (1983) Activation of the c-mos oncogene in a mouse plasmacytoma by insertion of an endogenous intracisternal A-particle genome. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80, 7118-7122.
22. Cerny, A., Ferrari, C. & Chisari, F. V. (1994) The class 1-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocyte response to predetermined epitopes in the hepatitis B and C viruses. Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. 189, 169-186.
23. Chakrabarti, R., Hofman, F. M., Pandey, R., Mathes, L. E. & Roy-Burman, P. (1994) Recombination between feline exogenous and endogenous retroviral sequences generates tropism for cerebral endothelial cells. Am. J. Pathol. 144, 348-358.
24. Chattopaghyay, S. K., Cloyd, M. W., Linemeyer, D. L., Lander, M. R., Rands, E. & Lowy, D. R. (1982) Cellular origin and role of mink cell focus-forming viruses in murine thymic lymphomas. Nature 295, 25-31.
25. Choi, S.-Y. & Faller, D. V. (1994) The long terminal repeats of a murine retrovirus encode a trans-activator for cellular genes. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 19691-19694.
26. Choi, Y., Kappler, J. W. & Marrack, P. (1991) A superantigen encoded in the open reading frame of the 3′ long terminal repeat of mouse mammary tumour virus. Nature 350, 203-207.
27. Christensen, T., Møiler-Larsen, A. & Haahr, S. (1994) A retroviral implication in multiple sclerosis? Trends Microbiol. 2, 332-336.
28. Cianciolo, G. J., Bogerd, H. & Snyderman, R. (1988) Human retrovirus related synthetic peptides inhibit T lymphocyte proliferation. Immunol. Lett. 19, 7-14.
29. Cianciolo, G., Hunter, J., Silva, J., Haskill, J. S. & Snyderman, R. (1981) Inhibitors of monocyte responses to chemotaxins are present in human cancerous effusions and react with monoclonal antibodies to the P15 (E) structural protein of retroviruses. J. Clin. Invest. 68, 831-844.
30. Cianciolo, G. J., Kipnis, R. J. & Snyderman, R. (1984) Similarity between p15E of murine and feline leukaemia viruses and p21 HTLV. Nature 311, 515.
31. Clavel, F., Hoggan, M. D., Willey, R. L., Strebel, K., Martin, M. A. & Repaske, R. (1989) Genetic recombination of human immunodeficiency virus. J. Virol. 63, 1455-1459.
32. Clerici, M., & Shearer, G. M. (1993) A Th1-Th2 switch is a critical step in the etiology of HIV infection. Immunol. Today 14, 107-111.
33. Coffin, J. (1984) Endogenous viruses. In: Weiss, R., Teich, N., Varmus, H. & Coffin, J. eds. RNA tumor viruses. New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, pp. 1109-1203.
34. Conrad, B., Weidmann, E., Trucco, G., Rudert, W. A., Behboo, R., Ricordi, C., Rodriquez-Rilo, H., Finegold, D. & Trucco, M. (1994) Evidence for superantigen involvement in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus aetiology. Nature 371, 351-355.
35. Covey, S. N. (1986) Amino acid sequence homology in gag region of reverse transcribing elements and the coat protein gene of cauliflower mosaic virus. Nucleic Acids Res. 14, 623-633.
36. Crawford, T. B., Adams, D. S., Cheevers, W. P. & Cork, L. C. (1980) Chronic arthritis in goats caused by a retrovirus. Science 207, 997-999.
37. Cross, S. L., Feinberg, M. B., Wolf, J. B., Holbrook, N. J., Wong-Staal, F. & Leonard, W. J. (1987) Regulation of the human interleukin-2 receptor a chain promoter: activation of a nonfunctional promoter by the transactivator gene of HTLV-1. Cell 49, 47-56.
38. Douvas, A. & Sobelman, S. (1991) Multiple overlapping homologies between two rheumatoid antigens and immunosuppressive viruses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 6328-6332.
39. Duvic, M., Johnson, T. M., Rapini, R. P., Freese, T., Brewton, G. & Rios, A. (1987) Acquired immune deficiency syndrome - associated psoriasis and Reiter's syndrome. Arch. Dermatol. 123, 1622-1632.
40. Edelmann, W., Kröger, B., Goller, M. & Horak, I. (1989) A recombination hotspot in the LTR of a mouse retrotransposon identified in an in vitro system. Cell 57, 937-946.
41. Emi, M., Horli, A., Tomita, N., Nishide, T., Ogawa, M., Mori, T. & Matsubara, K. (1988) Overlapping two genes in human DNA: a salivary amylase gene overlaps with a gamma-actin pseudogene that carries an integrated human endogenous retroviral DNA. Gene 62, 229-235.
42. Faff, O., Murray, A. B., Schmidt, J., Leib-Mösch, C., Erfle, V. & Hehlmann, R. (1992) Retrovirus-like particles from the human T47D cell line are related to mouse mammary tumour virus and are of human endogenous origin. J. Gen. Virol. 73, 1087-1097.
43. Fathallah-Shaykh, H., Wolf, S., Wong, E., Posner, J. B. & Furneaux, H. M. (1991) Cloning of a leucine-zipper protein recognized by the sera of patients with antibody-associated paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 3451-3454.
44. Feinberg, A. P. & Vogelstein, B. (1983) Hypomethylation distinguishes genes of some human cancers from their normal counterparts. Nature 301, 89-92.
45. Feuchter, A. & Mager, D. (1990) Functional heterogeneity of a large family of human LTR-like promoters and enhancers. Nucleic Acids Res. 18, 1261-1270.
46. Feuchter, A. E. & Mager, D. L. (1992) SV40 large T antigen transactivates the long terminal repeats of a large family of human endogenous retrovirus-like sequences. Virology 187, 242-250.
47. Feuchter-Murthy, A. E., Freeman, J. D. & Mager, D. L. (1993) Splicing of a human endogenous retrovirus to a novel phospholipase A2 related gene. Nucleic Acids Res. 21, 135-143.
48. Fiegl, M., Strasser-Wozak, E., Geley, S., Gsur, A., Drach, J. & Kofler, R. (1995) Glucocorticoid-mediated immunomodulation, hydrocortisone enhances immunosuppressive endogenous retroviral protein (p15E) expression in mouse immune cells. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 101, 259-264.
49. Figueroa, F., O'hUigin, C., Inoki, H. & Klein, J. (1991) Primate DRB6 pseudogenes: clue to the evolutionary origin of the HLA-DR2 haplotype. Immunogenetics 34, 324-337.
50. Franklin, G. C., Chretien, S., Hanson, I. M., Rochefort, H., May, F. E. B. & Westley, B. R. (1988) Expression of human sequences related to those of mouse mammary tumor virus. J. Virol. 62, 1203-1210.
51. Friedman, S. M., Posnett, D. N., Tumang, J. R., Cole, B. C. & Crow, M. K. (1991) A potential role for microbial superantigens in the pathogenesis of systemic autoimmune disease. Arthritis Rheum. 34, 468-480.
52. Fujii, M., Sassone-Corsi, P. & Verma, I. (1988) c-fos promoter transactvation by the tax1 protein of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85, 3526-3530.
53. Furneaux, H. M., Rosenblum, M. K., Dalman, J., Wong, E., Woodruff, P., Graus, F. & Posner, J. B. (1990) Selective expression of Purkinje-cell antigens in tumor tissue from patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. N. Engl. Med. 322, 1844-1851.
54. Gardner, M. B. (1994) Retroviruses and wild mice: a historical and personal perspective. Adv. Cancer Res. 65, 169-197.
55. Garry, R. F., Fermin, C. D., Hart, D. J., Alexander, S. S., Donehower, L. A. & Hong, L.-Z. (1990a) Detection of a human intracistemal A-type retroviral particle antigenically related to HIV. Science 250, 1127-1129.
56. Garry, R. F. (1990b) Extensive antigenic mimicry by retrovirus capsid proteins. AID Res. Hum. Retroviruses 6, 1361-1362.
57. Gattoni-Celli, S., Kirsch, K., Kalled, S. & Isselbacher, K. J. (1986) Expression of type C-related endogenous retroviral sequences in human colon tumors and colon cancer cell lines. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83, 6127-6131.
58. Gendelman, H. E., Phelps, W., Feigenbaum, L., Ostrove, J. M., Adachi, A., Howley, P. M., Khoury, G., Ginsberg, H. S. & Martin, M. A. (1986) Trans-activation of the human immunodeficiency virus long terminal repeat sequence by DNA viruses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83, 9759-9763.
59. Goodchild, N. L., Wilkinson, D. A. & Mager, D. L. (1992) A human endogenous long terminal repeat provides a polyadenylation signal to a novel, alternatively spliced transcript in normal placenta. Gene 121, 287-294.
60. Gooding, L. R. (1992) Virus proteins that counteract host immune defenses. Cell 71, 5-7.
61. Green, J. E., Hinrichs, S. H., Vogel, J. & Jay, G. (1989) Exocrinopathy resembling Sjögren's syndrome in HTLV-1 tax transgenic mice. Nature 341, 72-74.
62. Grohmann, U., Fioretti, M. C., Binaglia, L., Belladonna, M. L., Bianchi, R. & Puccetti, P. (1993) Immunogenic properties of retroviral protein p15E from drug-treated murine mastocytoma P815. Int. J. Cancer 55, 344-350.
63. Grohmann, U., Puccetti, P., Fioretti, M. C., Mage, M. G. & Romani, L. (1988) Cell-mediated immunity to chemically xenogenized tumors. III. Generation of monoclonal antibodies interfering with reactivity to novel antigens. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 10, 803-809.
64. Grohmann, U., Ullrich, S. J., Mage, M. G., Appella, E., Fioretti, M. C., Puccetti, P. & Romani, L. (1990) Identification and immunogenic properties of an 80-kDa surface antigen on a drug-treated tumor variant: relationship to MuLV gp70. Eur. J. Immunol. 20, 629-636.
65. Groudine, M., Eisenman, R. & Weintraub, H. (1981) Chromatin structure of endogenous retroviral genes and activation by an inhibitor of DNA methylation. Nature 292, 311-317.
66. Haahr, S., Sommerlund, M., Christensen, T., Jensen, A. W., Hansen, H. J. & Møller-Larsen, A. (1994) A putative new retrovirus associated with multiple sclerosis and the possible involvement of Epstein-Barr virus in this disease. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 724, 148-156.
67. Haahr, S., Sommerlund, M., Møller-Larsen, A., Nielsen, R. & Hansen, H. J. (1991) Just another dubious virus in cells from a patient with multiple sclerosis? Lancet i, 683-864.
68. Hao, W., Serreze, D. V., McCulloch, J. L. Neifing, D. K. & Palmer, J. P. (1993) Insulin (auto)antibodies from human IDDM cross-react with retroviral antigen p73. Autoimmunity 6, 787-798.
69. Haraguchi, S., Good, R. A., James-Yarish, M., Cianciolo, G. J. & Day, N. K. (1995a) Differential modulation of Th1- and Th2-related cytokine mRNA expression by a synthetic peptide homologous to a conserved domain within retroviral envelope protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 3611-3615.
70. Haraguchi, S., Good, R. A., James-Yarish, M., Cianciolo, G. J. & Day, N. K. (1995b) Induction of intracellular cAMP by a synthetic retroviral envelop peptide: a possible mechanism of immunopathogenesis in retroviral infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 5568-5571.
71. Held., W., Acha-Orbea, H., MacDonald, H. R. & Waanders., G. (1994) Superantigens and retroviral infection: insights from mouse mammary tumour virus. Immunol. Today 15, 184-190.
72. Helmberg, A., Fässler, R., Geley, K., Jöhrer, S., Kroemer, G., Böck, G. & Kofler, R. (1990) Glucocorticoid-regulated gene expression in the immune system: analysis of glucocorticoid-regulated transcripts from the mouse macrophage-like cell line P388D. J. Immunol. 145, 4332-4337.
73. Hirose, Y., Takamatsu, M. & Harada, F. (1993) Presence of env gene in members of the RTVL-H family of human endogenous retrovirus-like elements. Virology 192, 52-61.
74. Holland, C. A., Thomas, C. Y., Chattopadhyay, S. K., Koehne, C. & O'Donnell, P. V. (1989) Influence of enhancer sequences on thymotropism and leukemogenicity of mink cell focus-forming viruses. J. Virol. 63, 1284-1292.
75. Horwitz, M. S., Boyce-Jacino, M. T. & Faras, A. J. (1992) Novel human endogenous sequences related to human immunodeficiency virus type. Virol. 66, 2170-2179.
76. Hsiao, W.-L., Gattoni-Celli, S. & Weinstein, I. B. (1986) Effects of 5-azacytidine on expression of endogenous retrovirus-related sequences in C3H 10T 1/2 cells. J. Virol. 57, 1119-1126.
77. Hu, W.-S. & Temin, H. M. (1990) Retroviral recombination and reverse transcription. Science 30, 1227-1233.
78. Hügen, A. W., Vacchio, M. S. & Morse III, H. C. (1991) A virus-encoded 'superantigen' in a retrovirus-induced immunodeficiency syndrome of mice. Science 252, 424-127.
79. Isfort, R., Jones, D., Kost, R., Witter, R. & Kung., H.-J. (1992) Retrovirus insertion into herpesvirus in vitro and in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 991-995.
80. Isfort, R. J., Witter, R. & Kung, H.-J. (1994) Retrovirus insertion into herpesviruses. Trends Microbiol. 2, 174-177.
81. Iversen, O.-J. (1983) Isolation of virus-like particles in urine from a psoriatic patient. Acta Path. Microbial. Immunol. Scand. Sect. B. 91, 407-412.
82. Iwakura, Y., Tosu, M., Yoshida, E., Takiguchi, M., Sato, K., Kitajima, I., Nishioka, K., Yamamoto, K., Takeda, T., Hatanaka, M., Yamamoto, H. & Sekiguchi, T. (1991) Induction of inflammatory arthropathy resembling rheumatoid arthritis in mice transgenic for HTLV-I. Science 235, 1026-1028.
83. Izui, S., McConahey, P. J., Clark, J. P., Hang, L. M., Hara, I. & Dixon, F. J. (1981) Retroviral gp70 immune complexes in NZB NZW F2 mice with murine lupus nephritis. J. Exp. Med. 154, 517-528.
84. Izui, S., McConahey, P. J., Theofilopoulos, A. N. & Dixon, F. J. (1979) Association of circulating retroviral gp70-anti-gp70 immune complexes with murine systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Exp. Med. 149, 1099-1116.
85. Jørgensen, E. C., Kjeldgaard, N. O., Pedersen, F. S. & Jørgensen, P. (1988) A nucleotide substitution in the gag N terminus of the endogenous ecotropic DBA/2 virus prevents Pr65gag myristylation and virus replication. J. Virol. 62, 3217-3223.
86. Jubelt, B. (1991) Viruses and motor neuron diseases. Adv. Neurol. 56, 463-472.
87. Kalter, S. S., Helmke, R. J., Heberling, R. L., Panigel, M., Fowler, A. K., Strickland, J. E. & Hellman, A. (1973) C-type particles in normal human placentas. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 50, 1081-1084.
88. Kambhu, S., Falidorf, P. & Lee, J. S. (1990) Endogenous retroviral long terminal repeats within the HLA-DQ locus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87, 4927-4931.
89. Kato, N., Larsson, E. & Cohen, M. (1988) Absence of expression of a human endogenous retrovirus is correlated with choriocarcinoma. Int. J. Cancer 41, 380-385.
90. Kato, N., Pfeifer-Ohlsson, S., Kato, M., Larsson, E., Rydnert, J., Ohlsson, R. & Cohen, M. (1987) Tissue-specific expression of human provirus ERV3 mRNA in human placenta: two of the three ERV3 mRNAs contain human cellular sequences. J. Virol. 61, 2182-2191.
91. Kato, N., Shimotohno, K., van Leeuwen, D. & Cohen, M. (1990) Human proviral mRNAs down regulated in choriocarcinoma encode a zinc finger protein related to Krüppel. Mol. Cell. Biol. 10, 4401-4405.
92. + T cells in mice tolerant to Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B. Nature 349, 245-243.
93. Kawai, J., Ando, A., Sato, T., Nakatsuji, T., Tsuji, K. & Noko, H. I. (1989) Analysis of gene structure and antigen determinants of DR2 antigens using DR gene transfer into mouse L cells. J. Immunol. 142, 321-317.
94. Keydar, I., Ohno, T., Nayak, R., Sweet, R., Simoni, F., Weiss, F., Karby, S., Mesa-Tejada, R. & Spiegelman, S. (1984) Properties of retrovirus-like particles produced by a human breast carcinoma cell line: immunological relationship with mouse mammary tumor virus proteins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81, 4188-4192.
95. Kitajima, I., Yamamoto, K., Sato, K., Nakajima, Y., Nakajima, T., Maruyama, I., Osame, M. & Nishioka., K. (1992) Detection of human T cell lymphotropic virus type I proviral DNA and its gene expression in synovial cells in chronic inflammatory arthropathy. J. Clin. Invest. 88, 1315-1322.
96. Kitamura, M., Maruyama, N., Shirasawa, T., Nagasawa, R., Watanabe, K., Tateno, M. & Yoshiki, T. (1994) Expression of an endogenous retroviral gene product in human placenta. Int. J. Cancer 58, 836-840.
97. Kiyokawa, T., Seiki, M., Iwashita, S., Imagawa, K., Shimizu, F. & Yoshida, M. (1985) p27x-III and p21x-III, proteins encoded by the pX sequence of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82, 8359-8363.
98. Koka, P., van de Mark, K. & Faller, D. V. (1991) Trans-activation of genes encoding activation-associated human T lymphocyte surface protein by murine retroviral sequences. J. Immunol. 146, 2417-2425.
99. Koziel, M. J., Dudley, D., Wong, J. T., Dienstag, J., Houghton, M., Ralston, R. & Walker, B. D. (1992) Intrahepatic cytotoxic T lymphocytes specific for hepatitis C virus in persons with chronic hepatitis. J. Immunol. 149, 3339-3344.
100. Kraf, F. E., Herrmann, M., Leitmann, W. & Kalden, J. R. (1989) Are retroviruses involved in the pathogenesis of SLE? Evidence demonstrated by molecular analysis of nucleic acids from SLE patients' plasma. Rheumatol. Int. 9, 115-121.
101. Krieg, A. M., Gourley, M. F. & Perl, A. (1992a) Endogenous retroviruses: potential etiologic agents in autoimmunity. FASEB J. 6, 2537-2544.
102. Krieg, A. M., Gourley, M. F., Klinman, D. M., Perl, A. & Steinberg, A. D. (1992b) Heterogeneous expression and coordinate regulation of endogenous retroviral sequences in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 8, 1991-98.
103. Krieg, A. M., Gourley, M. F. & Steinberg, A. D. (1991) Association of murine lupus and thymic full-length endogenous retroviral expression maps to a bone marrow stem cell. J. Immunol. 146, 3002-3005.
104. Krieg, A. M., Khan, A. S. & Steinberg, A. D. (1988a) Multiple endogenous xenotropic and mink cell focus-forming murine leukemia virus-related transcripts are induced by polyclonal immune activators. J. Virol. 62, 3545-3550.
105. Krieg, A. M., Khan, A. S. & Steinberg, A. D. (1989a) Expression of an endogenous retroviral transcript is associated with murine lupus. Arthritis Rheum. 32, 322-329.
106. Krieg, A. M., Steinberg, A. D. & Khan, A. S. (1988b) Increased expression of novel full-length endogenous mink cell-forming-related transcripts in autoimmune mouse strains. Virology 162, 274-276.
107. Krieg., A. M., Gause, W. C., Gourley, M. F. & Steinberg, A. D. (1989b) A role for endogenous retroviral sequences in the regulation of lymphocyte activation. J. Immunol. 143, 2448-2451.
108. Kruth, R., Löwer, R., Löwer, J., Harzmann, R., Pfeiffer, R., Schmidt, C. G., Fogh, J. & Frank, H. (1980) Oncornavirus synthesis in human teratocarcinoma cultures and an increased antiviral immune reactivity in corresponding patients. In: Essex, M., Todaro, G. & zur Hausen, H. eds. Viruses in naturally occuring cancers. New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, pp. 835-846.
109. Kuff, E. L. & Lueders, K. K. (1988) The intracisternal A-particle gene family: structure and functional asoects. Adv. Cancer Res. 51, 183-276.
110. Lagaye, S., Vexiau, P., Morozov, V., Guenebaut-Claudet, V., Tobaly Tapiero, J., Canivet, M., Cathelineau, G., Peries, J. & Emanoil-Ravier, R. (1992) Human spumaretrovirus-related sequences in the DNA of leukocytes from patients with Graves disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 10070-10074.
111. Lamont, C., Culp, P., Talbott, R. L., Phillips, T. R., Trauger, R. J., Frankel, W. N., Wiison, M. C., Coffin, J. M. & Elder, J. H. (1991) Characterization of endogenous and recombinant proviral elements of a highly tumorigenic AKR ceil line. J. Virol. 65, 4619-4628.
112. Lasneret, J., Canivet, M., F. H.-M. de Oca, Tobaly, J., Emanoil-Ravicovitch, R. & Peries, J. (1983) Activation of intracisternal A particles by 5-azacytidine in mouse Ki-BALB cell line. Virology 128, 485-489.
113. Leib-Mösch, C., Bachmann, M., Brack-Werner, R., Werner, T., Erfle, V. & Hehlmann, R. (1992) Expression and biological significance of human endogenous retroviral sequences. Leukemia 6 (suppl 3), 72s-5s.
114. Leib-Mösch, C., Brack-Werner, R., Werner, T., Bachmann, M., Faff, O., Erfle, V. & Hehimann, R. (1990) Endogenous retroviral elements in human DNA. Cancer Res. 50 (suppl), 5636s-5642s.
115. Leiter, E. H. & Kuff, E. L. (1983) Intracisternal type A particles in murine pancreatic B cells: immunocytochemical demonstration of increased antigen (p73) in genetically diabetic mice. Am.J. Pathol. 114, 46-55.
116. Leiter, E. H., Fewell, J. W. & Kuff, E. L. (1986) Glucose induces intracisternal type A retroviral gene transcription and translation in pancreatic beta cells. J. Exp. Med. 163, 87-100.
117. Lerner, R. A., Wilson, C. B., Del Villano, B. C., McConahey, P. J. & Dixon F. J. (1976) Endogenous oncornaviral gene expression in adult and fetal mice: quantitative, histologic, and physiologic studies of the major viral glycoprotein, gp70. J. Exp. Med. 143, 151-166.
118. Leslie, K. B., Lee, F. & Schrader, J. W. (1991) Intracisternal A-type particle-mediated activations of cytokine genes in a murine myelomonocytic leukemia: generation of functional cytokine mRNAs by retroviral splicing events. Mol. Cell. Biol. 11, 5562-5570.
119. Lindeskog, M., Medstrand, P. & Blomberg, J. (1993) Sequence variation of human endogenous retrovirus ERV9-related elements in an env region corresponding to an immunosuppressive peptide: transcription in nomal and neoplastic cells. J. Virol. 67, 1122-1126.
120. Liu, A. Y. & Abraham, B. A. (1991) Subtractive cloning of a hybrid human endogenous retrovirus and calbindin gene in the prostate cell line PC3. Cancer Res. 51, 4107-4110.
121. Löwer, J., Wondrak, E. M. & Kurth, R. (1987) Genome analysis and reverse transcriptase activity of human teratocarcinoma-derived retroviruses. J. Gen. Virol. 68, 2807-2815.
122. Löwer, R., Boller, K., Hasenmaier, B., Korbmacher, C., Müller-Lantzsch, N., Löwer, J. & Kurth, R. (1993a) Identification of human endogenous retroviruses with complex mRNA expression and particle formation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 4480-4484.
123. Löwer, R., Löwer, J., Tondera-Koch, C. & Kurth, R. (1993b) A general method for the identification of transcribed retrovirus sequences (R-U5 PCR) reveals the expression of the human endogenous retrovirus loci HERVH and HERV-K in teratocarcinoma cells. Virology 192, 501-511.
124. Löwer, R., Tönjes, R. R., Korbmacher, C., Kurth, R. & Löwer, J. (1995) Identification of a Rev-related protein by analysis of spliced transcripts of the human endogenous retroviruses HTDV/HERV-K. J. Virol. 69, 141-149.
125. Lowy, Rowe, D. R. W. P., Teich, N. & Hartley, J. W. (1971) Murine leukemia virus: high-frequency activation in vitro by 5-iododeoxyuridine and 5-bromodeoxyuridine. Science 174, 155-156.
126. Mantia, G. L., Maglione, D., Pengue, G., Cristofano, A. D., Simeone, A., Lanfrancone, L. & Lania, L. (1991) Identification and characterization of novel human endogenous retroviral sequences preferentially expressed in undifferentiated embryonal carcinoma cells. Nucleic Acids Res. 19, 1513-1520.
127. Mariette, X., Agbalika, F., Daniel, M., Bisson, M., Lagrange, P., Brouet, J. & Morinet, F. (1993) Detection of human T lymphotropic virus type I tax gene in salivary gland epitherium from two patients with Sjögren's syndrome. Arthritis Rheum. 36, 1423-1428.
128. Markham, P. D., Ruscetti, F., Salahuddin, S. Z., Gallagher, R. E. & Gallo, R. C. (1979) Enhanced induction of growth of B lymphoblasts from fresh human blood by primate type-C retroviruses (gibbon ape leukemia virus and simian sarcoma virus). Int. J. Cancer 23, 148-156.
129. Marrack, P., Winslow, G. M., Choi, Y., Scherer, M., Pullen, A., White, J. & Kappler, J. W. (1993) The bacterial and mouse mammary tumour virus superantigens: two different families of proteins with the same functions. Immunol. Rev. 131, 79-92.
130. Martin, M. A., Bryan, T., Rasheed, S. & Khan, A. S. (1981) Identification and cloning of endogenous retroviral sequences present in human DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78, 4892-4896.
131. Maruyama, M., Shibuya, H., Harada, H., Hatakeyama, M., Seiki, M., Fujita, T., Inoue, J., Yoshida, M. & Taniguchi, T. (1987) Evidence for aberrant activation of the interleukin-2 autocrine loop by HTLV-1-encoded p40x and T3/Ti complex triggering. Cell 48, 343-350.
132. Mathes, L. E., Olsen, R. G., Hebebrand, L. C., Hoover, E. A. & Schaller, J. P. (1978) Abrogation of lymphocyte blastogenesis by a feline leukemia virus protein. Nature 274, 687-689.
133. Maul, G. G., Jimenez, S. A., Riggs, E. & Ziemnicka-Kotula, D. (1989) Determination of an epitope of the diffuse systemic sclerosis marker antigen DNA topoisomerase I: sequence similarity with retroviral p30gag protein suggests a possible cause for autoimmunity in systemic sclerosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86, 8492-8496.
134. May, F. E. B. & Westley, B. R. (1986) Structure of a human retroviral sequence related to mouse mammary tumor virus. J. Virol. 60, 743-749.
135. Mayer, W.E., O'hUigin, C. & Klein, J. (1993) Resolution of the HLA-DRB6 puzzle: a case of grafting a de novo-generated exon on an existing gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 10720-10724.
136. Medstrand, P. & Blomberg, J. (1993) Characterization of novel reverse transcriptase encoding human endogenous retroviral sequences similar to type A and type B retroviruses: differential transcription in normal human tissues. J. Virol. 67, 6778-6787.
137. Medstrand, P., Lindeskog, M. & Blomberg, J. (1992) Expression of human endogenous retroviral sequences in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of healthy individuals. J. Gen. Virol. 73, 2463-2466.
138. Meruelo, D., Kornreich, R., Rossomando, A., Pampeno, C., Mellor, A. L., Weiss, E. H., Flavell, R. A. & Pellicer, A. (1984) Murine leukemia virus sequences are encoded in the murine major histocompatibility complex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81, 1804-1808.
139. Meruelo, D., Rossomando, A., Offer, M., Buxbaum, J. & Pellicer, A. (1983) Association of endogenous viral loci with genes encoding murine histocompatibility and lymphocyte differentiation antigens. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80, 5032-5036.
140. Moore, K. W., Jardieu, P., Mietz, J. A., Trounstine, M. L., Kuff, E. L., Ishizaka, K. & Martens, C. L. (1986) Rodent IgE-binding factor genes are members of an endogenous, retrovirus-like gene family. J. Immunol. 136, 4283-4290.
141. Morse, B., Rotherg, P. G., South, V. J., Spandorfer, J. M. & Astrin, S. M. (1988) Insertional mutagenesis of the myc locus by a LINE-1 sequence in a human breast carcinoma. Nature 333, 87-90.
142. Mosca., J. D., Bednarik, D. P., Raj, N. B. K., Rosen, C. A., Sodroski, J. G., Haseltine, W. A. & Pitha, P. M. (1987) Herpes simplex virus type-1 can reactivate transcription of latent human immunodeficiency virus. Nature 325, 67-70.
143. Mueller-Lantzsch, N., Sauter, M., Weiskircher, A., Kramer, K., Best, B., Buck, M. & Grässer, F. (1993) Human endogenous retroviral element K10 (HERV-K10) encodes a full-length gag homologous 73-kDa protein and a functional protease. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 9, 343-350.
144. Nakagawa, K., Brusic, V., McColl, G. & Harrison, L. C. (1995) Retrovirus expression in synovial tissue from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Abstracts of Scientific Presentation. Annual Scientific Meeting of the American College of Rheumatology. Arthritis Rheum. 38 (suppl), S217.
145. Nakajima, T., Aono, H., Hasunuma, T., Yamamoto, K., Maruyama, I., Nosaka, T., Hatanaka, M. & Nishioka, K. (1993) Overgrowth of human synovial cells driven by the human T cell leukemia virus type I tax gene. J. Clin. Invest. 92, 186-193.
146. Nelson, M., Nelson, D. S., Cianciolo, G. J. & Snyderman, R. (1989) Effect of CKS-17, a synthetic retroviral envelope peptide, on cell-mediated immunity in vivo: immunosuppression, immunogenicity, and relation to immunosuppressive tumor products. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 30, 113-118.
147. Nerenberg, M., Hinrichs, S. H., Reynolds, K. K., Khoury, G. & Jay, G. (1987) The tax gene of human T-lympholropic virus type 1 induces mesenchymal tumors in transgenic mice. Science 237, 1324-1329.
148. Nishioka, K., Maruyama, I., Sato, K., Kitajima, I., Nakajima, Y. & Osame, M. (1989) Chronic inflammatory arthropathy associated with HTLV-I. Lancet i, 441.
149. Nokta, M. & Pollard, R. (1991) Human immunodeficiency virus infection: association with altered intracellular levels of cAMP and cGMP in MT-4 cells. Virology 181, 211-217.
150. O'Hara, B., Johann, S. V., Klinger, H. P., Blair, D. G., Rubinson, H., Dunn, K. J., Sass, P., Vitek, S.M. & Robins, T. (1990) Characterization of a human gene conferring sensitivity to infection by Gibbon ape leukemia virus. Cell Growth Diff. 119-127.
151. Ono, M., Kawakami, M. & Ushikubo, H. (1987) Stimulation of expression of the human endogenous retrovirus genome by female steroid hormones in human breast cancer cell line T47D.J. Virol. 61, 2059-2062.
152. Oostendorp, R. A. J., Schaaper, W. M. M., Post, J., von Blomberg, B. M. E., Meloen, R. H. & Scheper, R.J. (1992) Suppression of lymphocyte proliferation by a retroviral p15E-derived hexapeptide. Eur. J. Immunol. 22, 1505-1511.
153. Overbaugh, J., Donahue, P. R., Quackenbush, S. L., Hoover, E. A. & Mullins, J. I. (1988) Molecular cloning of a feline leukemia virus that induces fatal immunodeficiency disease in cats. Science 239, 906-910.
154. Paliard, X., West, S. G., Lafferty, J. A., Clements, J. R., Kappler, J. W., Marrack, P. & Kotzin, B. L. (1991) Evidence for the effects of a superantigen in rheumatoid arthritis Science, 253, 325-329.
155. Pampeno, C. L. & Meruelo, D. (1986) Isolation of a retroviruslike sequence from the TL locus of the C57BL/10 murine major histocompatibility complex. J. Virol. 58, 296-306.
156. Paulson, K. E., Deka, N., Schmid, C. W., Misra, R., Schindler, C. W., Rush, M. G., Kadyk, L. & Leinwand, L. (1985) A transposon-like element in human DNA. Nature 316, 359-361.
157. Perl, A. & Banki, K. (1993) Human endogenous retroviral elements and autoirnmunity: data and concepts. Trends Microbiol. 153-156.
158. Perl, A., Colombo, E., Agarwal, R., Mark, K. A., Banki, K., Poiesz, B. J., Phillips, P. E., Hock, S. O., Reveille, J. D. & Arnett, F. C. (1995) Antibody reactivity to the HRES-1 endogenous retroviral element identifies a subset of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and overlap syndrome: correlation with antinuclear antibodies and HLA class II alleles. Arthritis Rheum. 38, 1660-1671.
159. Perl., A., Rosenblatt, J. D., Chen, I., S. Y., DiVincenzo, J. P., Bever, R., Poiesz, B. J. & Abraham, G.N. (1989) Detection and cloning of new HTLV-related endogenous sequences in man. Nucleic Acids Res. 17, 6841-6854.
160. Perron, H., Gratacap, B., Lalande, B., Genoulaz, O., Laurent, A., Geny, C., Mallaret, M., Innocenti, P., Schuller, E., Stoebner, P. & Seigneurin, J. M. (1992) In vitro transmission and antigenicity of a retrovirus isolated from a multiple sclerosis patient. Res. Virol. 143, 337-350.
161. Perron, H., Lalande, B., Gratacap, B., Laurent, A., Genoulaz, O., Geny, C., Mallaret, M., Schuller, E., Stoebner, P. & Seigneurin, J. M. (1991) Isolation of retrovirus from patients with multiple sclerosis. Lancet 337, 862-863.
162. Perron., H., Suh, M., Lalande, B., Gratacap, B., Laurent, A., Stoebner, P. & Seigneurin, J. M. (1993) Herpes simplex virus ICPO and ICP4 immediate early proteins strongly enhance expression of a retrovirus harboured by a leptomeningeal cell line from a patient with multiple sclerosis. J. Gen. Virol. 74, 65-72.
163. van de Plassche-Boers, E. M., Tas, M., de Haan-Meulman, M., Kleingeld, M. & Drexhage. H.A. (1988) Abnormal monocyte chemotaxis in patients with chronic purulent rhinosinusitis, an effect of retroviral p15E-related factors in serum. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 73, 348-354.
164. Pozsgay, J. M., Beilharz, M. W., Wines, B. D., Hess, A. D. & Pitha, P. M. (1993) The MA (p15) and p12 regions of the gag gene are sufficient for the pathogenicity of the murine AIDS virus. J. Virol. 67, 5989-5999.
165. Preiss, A., Rosenberg, U. B., Kienlin, A., Seifert, E. & Jäckel, H. (1985) Molecular genetics of Krüppel, a gene required for segmentation of the Drosophila embryo. Nature 313, 27-32.
166. Pryciak, P. M., Müller, H.-P. & Varmus, H. E. (1992) Simian virus 40 minichromosomes as targets for retroviral integration in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 9237-9241.
167. Query, C. C. & Keene, J. D. (1987) A human autoimmune protein associated with U1 RNA contains a region of homology that is crossreactive with retroviral p30gag antigen. Cell 51, 211-220.
168. Rasmussen, H. B., Perron, H. & Clausen, J. (1993) Do endogenous retroviruses have etiological implications in inflammatory and degenerative nervous system diseases? Acta Neurol. Scand, 88, 190-198.
169. Rethwilm, A., Erlwein, O., Baunach, G., Maurer, B. & ter Meulen, V. (1991) The transcriptional transactivator of human foamy virus maps to the bel 1 genomic region. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 941-945.
170. Richardson, G. E. & Johnson, B. E. (1992) Paraneoplastic syndromes in lung cancer. Curr. Opin. Oncol. 4, 323-333.
171. Rossomando, A. & Meruelo, D. (1986) Viral sequences are associated with many histocompatibility genes. Immunogenetics 23, 233-245.
172. Rowland, L. P., Sherman, W. H., Latov, N., Lange, D. J., McDonald, T. D., Younger, D. S., Murphy, P. L., Hays, A. P. & Knowles, D. (1992) Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and lymphoma: bone marrow examination and other diagnostic tests. Neurology 42, 1101-1102.
173. Rucheton, M., Graafland, H., Fanton, H., Ursule, L., Ferrier, P. & Larsen, C. J. (1985) Presence of circulating antibodies against gag-gene MuLV proteins in patients with autoimmune connective tissue disorders. Virology 144, 468-480.
174. Rudensky, A. Y., Preston-Huriburt, P., Hong, S.-C., Barlow, A. & Janeway Jr, C. A. (1991) Sequence analysis of peptides bound to MHC class II molecules. Nature 353, 622-627.
175. Ruegg, C. L., Monell, C. R. & Strand, M. (1989a) Identification, using synthetic peptides, of the minimum amino acid sequence from the retroviral transmembrane protein p15E required for inhibition of lymphoproliferation and its similarity to gp21 of human T-lymphotropic virus types I and II. J. Virol. 63, 3250-3256.
176. Ruegg, C. L., Monell, C. R. & Strand, M. (1989b) Inhibition of lymphoproliferation by a synthetic peptide with sequence identity to gp41 of human immunodeficiency virus type. Virol. 63, 3257-3260.
177. Russell, J. H., Rush, B., Weaver, C. & Wang, R. (1993) Mature T cells of autoimmune lpr/lpr mice have a defect in antigen-stimulated suicide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 4409-4413.
178. Samuelson, L. C., Wiebauer, K., Snow, C. M. & Meisler, M. H. (1990) Retroviral and pseudogene insertion sites reveal the lineage of human salivary and pancreatic amylase gene from a single gene during primate evolution. Mol. Cell. Biol. 10, 2513-2520.
179. Sauter, M., Schommer, S., Kremmer, E., Remberger, K., Dölken, G., Lemm, I., Buck, M., Best, B., Neumann-Haefelin, D. & Mueller-Lantzsch, N. (1995) Human endogenous retrovirus K10: expression of gag protein and detection of antibodies in patients with seminomas. J. Virol. 69, 414-421.
180. Scale, G., Ruocco, M. R., Ambrosino, C., Mallardo, M., Giordano, V., Baldassarre, F., Dragonetti, E., Quinto, I. & Venuta, S. (1994) The expression of the interleukin 6 gene is induced by the human immunodeficiency virus 1 Tat protein. J. Exp. Med. 179, 961-971.
181. Scherdin, U., Rhodes, K. & Breindl, M. (1990) Transcriptionally active genome regions are preferred targets for retrovirus integration. J. Virol. 64, 907-912.
182. Seifarth, W., Skiadny, H., Krieg-Schneider, F., Reichert, A., Hehlmann, R. & Leib-Mösch, C. (1995) Retrovirus-like particles released from the human breast cancer cell line T47-D display type B- and C-related endogenous retroviral sequences. J. Virol. 69, 6408-6416.
183. Serreze, D. V., Leiter, E. H., Kuff, E. L., Jardieu, P. & Ishizaka, K. (1988) Molecular mimicry between insulin and retroviral antigen p73: development of cross-reactive autoantibodies in sera of NOD and C57BUKsJ db/db mice. Diabetes 37, 351-358.
184. Shattles, W. G., Brookes, S. M., Venables, P. J. W., Clark, D. A. & Maini, R. (1992) Expression of antigen reactive with a monoclonal antibody to HTLV-I p19 in salivary glands in Sjögren's syndrome. Clin. Exp. Immunol., 89, 46-51.
185. Shih, A., Misra, R. & Rush, M. G. (1989) Detection of multiple, novel reverse transcriptase coding sequences in human nucleic acids: relation to primate retroviruses. J. Virol. 63, 64-75.
186. Shiroishi, T., Sagai, T. & Moriwaki, K. (1993) Hotspots of meiotic recombination in the mouse major histocompatibility complex. Genetica 88, 187-196.
187. Slamon, D. J., Shimotono, K., Cline, M. J., Golde, D. W. & Chen, I.S. (1984) Identification of the putative transforming protein of the human T-cell leukemia viruses HTLV-I and HTLV-II. Science 226, 61-65.
188. Sodroski, J., Patarca, R., Rosen, C., Wong-Staal, F. & Haseltine, W. (1985) Location of the trans-activating region on the genome of human Tcell lymphotropic virus type III. Science 229, 74-77.
189. Spriggs, M. K. (1994) Cytokine and cytokine receptor genes 'captured' by virues. Curr. Opin. Immunol 6, 526-529.
190. Stavenhagen, J. B. & Robins, D. M. (1988) An ancient provirus has imposed androgen regulation on the adjacent mouse sex-limited protein gene. Cell 55, 247-254.
191. Stöger, H., Wilders-Truschnig, M., Samonigg, H., Schmid, M., Bauernhofer, T., Tiran, A., Tas, M. & Drexhage, H. A. (1993) The presence of immunosuppressive 'p15E-like' factors in the serum and urine of patients suffering from malign and benign breast tumours. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 93, 437-441.
192. Stoye, J. P., Moroni, C. & Coffin, J. M. (1991) Virological events leading to spontaneous AKR thymomas. J. Virol. 65, 1273-1285.
193. Strand, M. & August, J.T. (1976) Oncornavirus envelop glycoprotein in serum of mice. Virology 75, 130-144.
194. Sugita, T., Totsuka, T., Saito, M., Yamasaki, K., Taga, T., Hirano, T. & Kishimoto, T. (1990) Functional murine interleukin 6 receptor with the intracisternal A particle gene product at its cytoplasmic domain: its possible role in plasmacytomagenesis. J. Exp. Med. 171, 2001-2009.
195. Sumaya, C. V., Myers, L. W., Ellison, G. W. & Ench, Y. (1985) Increased prevalence and titer of Epstein-Barr virus antibodies in patients with multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 17, 371-377.
196. Sumida, T., Yonaha, F., Maeda, T., Kita, Y., Iwamoto, I., Kolke, T. & Yoshida, S. (1994) Expression of sequences homologous to HTLV-I tax gene in the labial salivary glands of Japanese patients with Sjögren's syndrome. Arthritis Rheum. 37, 545-550.
197. Suni, J., Närvänen, A., Wahiström, T., Aho, M., Pakkanen, R., Vaheri, A., Copeland, T., Cohen, M. & Oroszlan, S. (1984) Human placental syncytiotrophoblastic Mr 75 000 polypeptide defined by antibodies to a synthetic peptide based on a cloned human endogenous retroviral DNA sequence. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81, 6197-6201.
198. Talal, N., Dauphinee, M. J., Dang, H., Alexander, S. S., Hart, D. J. & Garry, R. F. (1990a) Detection of serum antibodies to retroviral proteins in patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome (autoimmune exocrinopathy). Arthritis Rheum. 33, 774-781.
199. Talal, N., Flescher, E. & Dang, H. (1992) Evidence for possible retroviral involvement in autoimmune diseases. Ann. Allergy 69, 221-224.
200. Talal, N., Garry, R. F., Schur, P. H., Alexander, S., Dauphinee, M. J., Livas, I.. H., Ballester, A., Takei, M. & Dang, H. (1990b) A conserved idiotype and antibodies to retroviral proteins in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Clin. Invest. 85, 1866-1871.
201. Tas, M., de Haan-Meulman, M., Kabel, P. J. & Drexhage, H. A. (1991) Defects in monocyte polarization and dendritic cell clustering in patients with Graves' disease. A putative role for a non-specific immunoregulatory factor related to p15E. Clin. Endocrinol. 34, 441-448.
202. Tassabehji, M., Strachan, T., Anderson, M., Campbell, R. D., Collier, S. & Lako, M. (1994) Identification of a novel family of human endogenous retroviruses and characterization of one family member, HERV-K (C4), located in the complement C4 gene cluster. Nucleic Acids Res. 24, 5211-5217.
203. Ting, C.-N., Rosenberg, M. P., Snow, C. M., Samuelson, L. C. & Meisier, M. H. (1992) Endogenous retroviral sequences are required for tissue-specific expression of a human salivary amylase gene. Genes Develop. 6, 1457-1465.
204. Tumas, K. M., Poszgay, J. M., Avidan, N., Ksiazek, B. Overmoyer, S. J., Blank, K. J. & Prystowsky, M.B. (1993) Loss of antigenic epitopes as the result of env gene recombination in retrovirus-induced leukemia in immunocompetent mice. Virology 192, 587-595.
205. Turturro, A., Blank, K. J., Murasko, D. M. & Hart, R. (1994) Mechanisms of caloric restriction affecting aging and disease. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 719, 159-170.
206. Uematsu, Y., Kiefer, H., Schulze, R., Fischer-Lindahl, K. & Steinmetz, M. (1986) Molecular characterization of a meiotic recombinational hotspot enhancing homologous equal crossing-over. EMBO J. 5, 2123-2129.
207. Valerie, K., Delers, A., Bruck, C., Thiriart, C., Rosenberg, H., Debouck, C. & Rosenberg, M. (1988) Activation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by DNA damage in human cells. Nature 333, 78-81.
208. Venables, P. & Brookes, S. (1992) Retroviruses: potential aetiological agents in autoimmune rheumatic disease. Br. J. Rheumatol. 31, 841-846.
209. Venables, P. J. W., Brookes, S. M., Weerasinghe, D. & Maini, R. N. (1994) Placental expression of a potentially immunosuppressive human endogenous retrovirus envelope glycoprotein. Arthritis Rheum. 37 (suppl), S209.
210. Weiner, A. M., Deininger, P. L. & Efstratiadis, A. (1986) Nonviral retroposons: genes, pseudogenes, and transposable elements generated by the reverse flow of genetic information. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 55, 631-661.
211. Weiss, R. A., Friis, R. R., Katz, E. & Vogt, P. K. (1971) Induction of avian tumor viruses in normal cells by physical and chemical carcinogens. Virology 46, 920-938.
212. Wilkinson, D. A., Freeman, J. D., Goodchild, N. L., Kelleher, C. A. & Mager, D. L. (1990) Autonomous expression of RTVL-H endogenous retroviruslike elements in human cells. J. Virol. 64, 2157-2167.
213. Ymer, S., Tucker, W. Q. J., Sanderson, C. J., Hapel, A. J., Campbell, H. D. & Young, I. G. (1985) Constitutive synthesis of interleukin-3 by leukaemia cell line WEHI-3B is due to retroviral insertion near the gene. Nature 317, 255-258.
214. York, D. F., Vigne, R., Verwoerd, D. W. & Querat, G. (1991) Isolation, identification, and partial cDNA cloning of genomic RNA of jaagsiekte retrovirus, the etiological agent of sheep pulmonary adenomatosis. J. Virol. 65, 5061-5067.
215. Yoshiki, T., Mellors, R. C., Strand, M. & August, J. T. (1974) The viral envelope glycoprotein of murine leukemia virus and the pathogenesis of immune complex glomerulonephritis of New Zealand mice. J. Exp. Med. 140, 1011-1027.
216. Zhu, Z. B., Hsieh, S.-L., Bentley, D. R., Campbell, R. D. & Volanakis, J. E. (1992) A variable number of tandem repeats locus within the human complement C2 gene is associated with a retroposon derived from a human endogenous retrovirus. J. Exp. Med. 175, 1783-1787.
217. Ziegler, B. L. & Thomas, C. A. (1991) Detection of HIV-I related antigens in rheumatoid synovial tissues. Acta Histochem. Cytochem. 24, 1-9.
218. Ziegler., B., Gay, R. E., Huang, G., Fassbender, H.-G. & Gay, S. (1989) Immunohistochemical localization of HTLV-I p19- and p24-related antigens in synovial joints of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Am. J. Path. 135, 1-5.
219. Zimmerer, E. J. & Passmore, H. C. (1991) Structural and genetic properties of the Eb recombinational hotspot in the mouse. Immunogenetics 33, 132-140.