EFNS guidelines on pharmacological treatment of neuropathic pain

European Journal of Neurology

Volumn 13, Issue 11, 2006, Pages 1153-1169

  Attal, N ^a,j   Cruccu, G ^a,b   Haanpaa M ^a,c   Hansson, P ^a,d   Jensen, T S ^a,e   Nurmikko, T ^f   Sampaio, C ^g   Sindrup, S ^h   Wiffen, P ⁱ  

^a LABORATOIRE DES SCIENCES DU CLIMAT ET DE L ENVIRONNEMENT   (France)

^b SAPIENZA UNIVERSITY OF ROME   (Italy)

^c HELSINKI UNIVERSITY CENTRAL HOSPITAL   (Finland)

^d KAROLINSKA INSTITUTE   (Sweden)

^e AARHUS UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Denmark)

^f UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

^g UNIVERSITY OF LISBON   (Portugal)

^h ODENSE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Denmark)

ⁱ Cochrane Pain and Palliative Care Review Group ^*  (United Kingdom)

^j HÔPITAL AMBROISE PARÉ   (France)

more..

Author keywords

Central pain; Neuropathic pain; Pain symptoms; Painful neuropathy; Pharmacological treatment; Postherpetic neuralgia; Quality of life; Trigeminal neuralgia

Indexed keywords

AMITRIPTYLINE; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; CAPSAICIN; CARBAMAZEPINE; CISPLATIN; CLOMIPRAMINE; CLONIDINE; DESIPRAMINE; DEXTROMETHORPHAN; DULOXETINE; GABAPENTIN; IMIPRAMINE; LAMOTRIGINE; LIDOCAINE; MEMANTINE; MEXILETINE; MIANSERIN; NORTRIPTYLINE; OPIATE DERIVATIVE; OXCARBAZEPINE; OXYCODONE; PREGABALIN; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; TETRAHYDROCANNABINOL; TOPIRAMATE; TRAMADOL; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG; VALPROIC ACID; VENLAFAXINE;

AGITATION; ANOREXIA; ARTICLE; AUTONOMIC NEUROPATHY; CLINICAL TRIAL; COCHRANE LIBRARY; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COMA; CONFUSION; CONSTIPATION; DEATH; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIABETIC NEUROPATHY; DIZZINESS; DROWSINESS; DRUG DEPENDENCE; DRUG EFFICACY; FATIGUE; FEASIBILITY STUDY; FEVER; GAIT DISORDER; GUILLAIN BARRE SYNDROME; HEADACHE; HEART PALPITATION; HEPATITIS; HOT FLUSH; HUMAN; HYPERREFLEXIA; HYPONATREMIA; MYOCLONUS; NAUSEA; NEUROPATHIC PAIN; NEUROPATHY; OPIOID INDUCED EMESIS; ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION; OUTPATIENT; PERIPHERAL EDEMA; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; PHANTOM PAIN; POLYNEUROPATHY; POSTHERPETIC NEURALGIA; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; RESTLESSNESS; RHABDOMYOLYSIS; RIGIDITY; SEDATION; SEIZURE; SEROTONIN SYNDROME; SHIVERING; SIDE EFFECT; SOMNOLENCE; STANDARDIZATION; SWEAT GLAND DISEASE; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; TREATMENT INDICATION; TRIGEMINUS NEURALGIA; VISUAL DISORDER; VOMITING; WEAKNESS; XEROSTOMIA;

AIDS-ASSOCIATED NEPHROPATHY; ANALGESICS, OPIOID; ANTICONVULSANTS; ANTIDEPRESSIVE AGENTS; DRUG THERAPY; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; HUMANS; NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES; NEURALGIA; NEURALGIA, POSTHERPETIC; PAIN; POLYNEUROPATHIES; TRIGEMINAL NEURALGIA;

EID: 33750048137     PISSN: 13515101     EISSN: 14681331     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01511.x     Document Type: Article

References (148)

1. Dworkin RH, Backonja M, Rowbotham MC, et al. Advances in neuropathic pain: diagnosis, mechanisms, and treatment recommendations. Archives of Neurology 2003a; 60: 1524-1534.
2. Finnerup NB, Otto M, McQuay HJ, et al. Algorithm for neuropathic pain treatment: an evidence based proposal. Pain 2005; 118: 289-305.
3. Baron R. Neuropathic pain. The long path from mechanisms to mechanism-based treatment. Anaesthetist 2000; 49: 373-386.
4. Woolf CJ, Max MB. Mechanism-based pain diagnosis: issues for analgesic drug development. Anesthesiology 2001; 95: 241-249.
5. Attal N. Chronic neuropathic pain: mechanisms and treatment. Clinical Journal of Pain 2000; 16(Suppl. 3): S118-S130.
6. Hansson P. Difficulties in stratifying neuropathic pain by mechanisms. European Journal of Pain 2003; 7: 353-357.
7. Jensen TS, Baron R. Translation of symptoms and signs into mechanisms in neuropathic pain. Pain 2003; 102: 1-8.
8. Dubinsky RM, Kabbani H, El-Chami Z, et al. Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Practice parameter: treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: an evidence-based report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2004; 63: 959-965.
9. Hempenstall K, Nurmikko TJ, Johnson RW, et al. Analgesic therapy in postherpetic neuralgia: a quantitative systematic review. PLoS Medicine 2005; 2: 628-644.
10. Adriaensen H, Plaghki L, Mathieu C, et al. Critical review of oral drug treatments for diabetic neuropathic pain-clinical outcomes based on efficacy and safety data from placebo-controlled and direct comparative studies. Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews 2005; 21: 231-240.
11. Saarto T, Wiffen P. Antidepressants for neuropathic pain. Cochrane Database of Systemic Reviews 2005; 20: CD005454.
12. Brainin M, Barnes M, Baron JC, et al. Guideline Standards Subcommittee of the EFNS Scientific Committee. Guidance for the preparation of neurological management guidelines by EFNS scientific task forces - revised recommendations. European Journal of Neurology 2004; 11: 577-581.
13. Rasmussen PV, Sindrup SH, Jensen TS, et al. Symptoms and signs in patients with suspected neuropathic pain. Pain 2004; 110: 461-469.
14. Sindrup SH, Otto M, Finnerup NB, et al. Antidepressants in the treatment of neuropathic pain. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology and Therapy 2005; 96: 399-409.
15. Wiffen P, McQuay H, Edwards J, et al. Gabapentin for acute and chronic pain. Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews 2005a; 20: CD005452.
16. Wiffen P, McQuay H, Moore R. Carbamazepine for acute and chronic pain. Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews 2005b; 20: CD005451.
17. Wiffen P, Collins S, McQuay H, et al. Anticonvulsant drugs for acute and chronic pain. Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews 2005c; 20: CD001133.
18. Otto M, Bak S, Bach FW, et al. Pain phenomena and possible mechanisms in patients with painful polyneuropathy. Pain 2003; 101: 187-192.
19. Sindrup SH, Jensen TS. Pharmacologic treatment of pain in polyneuropathy. Neurology 2000; 55: 915-920.
20. Vrethem M, Boivie J, Arnqvist H, et al. A comparison a amitriptyline and maprotiline in the treatment of painful polyneuropathy in diabetics and nondiabetics. Clinical Journal of Pain 1997; 13: 313-323 (class I).
21. Sindrup SH, Gram LF, Skjold T, et al. Clomipramine vs desipramine vs placebo in the treatment of diabetic neuropathy symptoms. A double-blind cross-over study. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 1990; 30: 683-691 (class I).
22. Rowbotham MC, Goli V, Kunz NR, et al. Venlafaxine extended release in the treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Pain 2004; 110: 697-706 (class I).
23. Sindrup SH, Bach FW, Madsen C, et al. Venlafaxine versus imipramine in painful polyneuropathy. A randomized, controlled trial. Neurology 2003; 60: 1284-1289 (class I).
24. Goldstein DJ, Lu Y, Detke MJ, et al. Duloxetine versus placebo in patients with painful diabetic neuropathy. Pain 2005; 116: 109-118 (class I).
25. Raskin J, Pritchett YL, Wang F, et al. A double-blind, randomized multicenter trial comparing duloxetine with placebo in the management of diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain. Pain Medicine 2005; 6: 346-356 (class I).
26. Rull JA, Quibrera R, Gonzalez-Millan H, et al. Symptomatic treatment of peripheral diabetic neuropathy with carbamazepine (Tegretol): double blind crossover trial. Diabetologia 1969; 5: 215-218 (class III).
27. Wilton TD. Tegretol in the treatment of diabetic neuropathy. South African Medical Journal 1974; 48: 869-872 (class III).
28. Gomez-Perez FJ, Choza R, Rios JM, et al. Nortriptyline-fluphenazine vs. carbamazepine in the symptomatic treatment of diabetic neuropathy. Archives of Medical Research 1996; 27: 525-529 (class II).
29. Dogra S, Beydoun S, Mazzola J, et al. Oxcarbazepine in painful diabetic neuropathy: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. European Journal of Pain 2005; 9: 543-554 (class II).
30. Eisenberg E, Lurie Y, Braker C, et al. Lamotrigine reduces painful diabetic neuropathy: a randomized, controlled study. Neurology 2001; 57: 505-509 (class I).
31. Thienel U, Neto W, Schwabe SK, et al. Topiramate Diabetic Neuropathic Pain Study Group. Topiramate in painful diabetic polyneuropathy: findings from three double-blind placebo-controlled trials. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 2004; 110: 221-231.
32. Raskin P, Donofrio PD, Rosenthal NR, et al. Topiramate vs placebo in painful diabetic polyneuropathy: analgesic and metabolic effects. Neurology 2004; 63: 865-873 (class I).
33. Kochar DK, Jain N, Agarwal RP, et al. Sodium valproate in the management of painful polyneuropathy in type 2 diabetes - a randomized placebo controlled study. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 2002; 106: 248-252 (class II).
34. Kochar DK, Rawat N, Agrawal RP, et al. Sodium valproate for painful diabetic neuropathy: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled study. The Quarterly Journal of Medicine 2004; 97: 33-38 (class II).
35. Otto M, Bach FW, Jensen TS, et al. Valproic acid has no effect on pain in polyneuropathy: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology 2004; 62: 285-288 (class I).
36. Backonja M, Beydoun A, Edwards KR, et al. Gabapentin for the symptomatic treatment of painful neuropathy in patients with diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association 1998; 280: 1831-1836 (class I).
37. Lesser H, Sharma U, LaMoreaux L, et al. Pregabalin relieves symptoms of painful diabetic neuropathy. Neurology 2004; 63: 2104-2110 (class I).
38. Rosenstock J, Tuchmann M, LaMoreaux L, et al. Pregabalin for the treatment of painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Pain 2004; 110: 628-638 (class I).
39. Simpson DA. Gabapentin and venlafaxine for the treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy. Journal of Clinical Neuromuscular Disease 2001; 3: 53-62 (class II).
40. Richter RW, Portenoy R, Sharma U, et al. Relief of diabetic peripheral neuropathy with pregabalin: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Pain 2005; 6: 253-260 (class I).
41. Freynhagen R, Strojek K, Griesing T, et al. Efficacy of pregabalin in neuropathic pain evaluated in a 12-week, randomised, double-blind, multicentre, placebo-controlled trial of flexible- and fixed-dose regimens. Pain 2005; 115: 254-263 (class I).
42. Morello CM, Leckband SG, Stoner CP, et al. Randomized double-blind study comparing the efficacy of gabapentin with amitriptyline on diabetic peripheral neuropathy pain. Archives of Internal Medicine 1999; 159: 1931-1937 (class II).
43. Watson CP, Moulin D, Watt-Watson J, et al. Controlled-release oxycodone relieves neuropathic pain: a randomized controlled trial in painful diabetic neuropathy. Pain 2003; 105: 71-78 (class I).
44. Gimbel JS, Richrds P, Portenoy RK. Controlled-release oxycodone for pain in diabetic neuropathy. A randomized controlled trial. Neurology 2003; 60: 927-934 (class I).
45. Harati Y, Gooch C, Swenson M, et al. Double-blind randomized trial of tramadol for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy. Neurology 1998; 50: 1842-1846 (class I).
46. Sindrup SH, Andersen G, Madsen C, et al. Tramadol relieves pain and allodynia in polyneuropathy: a randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Pain 1999; 83: 85-90 (class I).
47. Sang CN, Booher S, Gilron I, et al. Dextromethorphan and memantine in painful diabetic neuropathy and postherpetic neuralgia. Efficacy and dose-response trials. Anesthesiology 2002; 96: 1053-1061 (class I).
48. Nelson KA, Park KM, Robinovitz E, et al. High-dose oral dextromethorphan versus placebo in painful diabetic neuropathy and postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology 1997; 48: 1212-1218 (class I).
49. Ertas M, Sagduyu A, Arac N, et al. Use of levodopa to relieve pain from painful symmetrical diabetic polyneuropathy. Pain 1998; 75: 257-259 (class II).
50. Simpson DM, Olney R, McArthur JC, et al. A placebo-controlled trial of lamotrigine for painful HIV-associated neuropathy. Neurology 2000; 54: 2115-2119 (class II).
51. Simpson DM, McArthur JC, Olney R, et al. Lamotrigine for HIV-associated painful sensory neuropathies: a placebo-controlled trial. Neurology 2003; 60: 1508-1514 (class I).
52. Hahn K, Arendt G, Braun JS. German Neuro-AIDS Working Group. A placebo-controlled trial of gabapentin for painful HIV-associated sensory neuropathies. Journal of Neurology 2004; 251: 1260-1266 (class II).
53. Shlay JC, Chaloner K, Max MB, et al. Acupuncture and amitriptyline for pain due to HIV-related peripheral neuropathy: a randomized controlled trial. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. The Journal of American Medical Association 1998; 280: 1590-1595 (class I).
54. Kieburtz K, Simpson D, Yiannoutsos C, et al. A randomized trial of amitriptyline and mexiletine for painful neuropathy in HIV infection. Protocol Team. Neurology 1998; 242: 1682-1688 (class I).
55. Estanislao L, Carter K, McArthur J, et al. The Lidoderm-HIV Neuropathy Group. Lidocaine gel for HIV-associated distal symmetric polyneuropathy. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2004; 5: 1584-1586 (class II).
56. Kemper CA, Kent G, Burton S, Deresinski SC. Mexiletine for HIV-infected patients with painful peripheral neuropathy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover treatment trial. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 1998; 19: 367-372 (class I).
57. Paice JA, Ferrans CE, Lashley FR, et al. Topical capsaicin in the management of HIV-associated peripheral neuropathy. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 2000; 19: 45-52 (class I).
58. Hammack JE, Michalak JC, Loprinzi CL, et al. Phase III evaluation of nortriptyline for alleviation of symptoms of cis-platinum-induced peripheral neuropathy. Pain 2002; 98: 195-203 (class II).
59. Gilron I, Bailey JM, Tu D, et al. Morphine, gabapentin, or their combination for neuropathic pain. New England Journal of Medicine 2005; 352: 1324-1334 (class I).
60. Nurmikko T, Bowsher D. Somatosensory findings in postherpetic neuralgia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1990; 53: 135-141.
61. Watson CP, Chipman M, Reed K, et al. Amitriptyline versus maprotiline in postherpetic neuralgia: a randomized, double-blind, crossover trial. Pain 1992; 48: 29-36 (class II).
62. Watson CP, Vernich L, Chipman M, et al. Nortriptyline versus amitriptyline in postherpetic neuralgia: a randomized trial. Neurology 1998; 51: 1166-1171 (class II).
63. Rowbotham MC, Harden N, Stacey B, et al. Gabapentin for treatment of postherpetic neuralgia. The Journal of American Medical Association 1998; 280: 1837-1843 (class I).
64. Rice ASC, Maton S. Post Herpetic Neuralgia Study Group. Gabapentin in postherpetic neuralgia; a randomised, double-blind, controlled study. Pain 2001; 94: 215-224 (class I).
65. Dworkin RH, Corbin AE, Young JP Jr, et al. Pregabalin for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Neurology 2003b; 60: 1274-1283 (class I).
66. Sabatowski R, Galvez R, Cherry DA, et al. Pregabalin reduces pain and improves sleep and mood disturbances in patients with post-herpetic neuralgia: results of a randomised, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Pain 2004; 109: 26-35 (class I).
67. Kochar DK, Garg P, Bumb RA et al. Divalproex sodium in the management of post-herpetic neuralgia: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Quarterly Journal of Medicine 2005; 98: 29-34 (class II).
68. Galer BS, Rowbotham MC, Perander J, et al. Topical lidocaine patch relieves postherpetic neuralgia more effectively than a vehicle topical patch: results of an enriched enrollment study. Pain 1999; 80: 533-538 (class II).
69. Galer BS, Jensen MP, Ma T, et al. The lidocaine patch 5% effectively treats all neuropathic pain qualities: results of a randomized, double-blind, vehicle-controlled, 3-week efficacy study with use of the neuropathic pain scale. Clinical Journal of Pain 2002; 5: 297-301 (class II).
70. Wasner G, Kleinert A, Binder A, et al. Postherpetic neuralgia: topical lidocaine is effective in nociceptordeprived skin. Journal of Neurology 2005; 252: 677-686 (class II).
71. Meier T, Wasner G, Faust M, et al. Efficacy of lidocaine patch 5% in the treatment of focal peripheral neuropathic pain syndromes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Pain 2003; 106: 151-158 (class II).
72. Bernstein JE, Korman NJ, Bickers DR, et al. Topical capsaicin treatment of chronic postherpetic neuralgia. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 1989; 21: 265-270 (class II).
73. Watson CP, Tyler KL, Bickers DR, et al. A randomized vehicle-controlled trial of topical capsaicin in the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia. Clinical Therapeutics 1993; 15: 510-526 (class I).
74. Watson CP, Babul N. Efficacy of oxycodone in neuropathic pain: a randomized trial in postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology 1998; 50: 1837-1841 (class I).
75. Raja SN, Haythornwaite JA, Pappagallo M, et al. Opioids versus antidepressants in postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology 2002; 59: 1015-1021 (class I).
76. Rowbotham MC, Twilling L, Davies PS, et al. Oral opioid therapy for chronic peripheral and central neuropathic pain. New England Journal of Medicine 2003; 348: 1223-1232 (class II).
77. Boureau F, Legallicier P, Kabir-Ahmadi M. Tramadol in post-herpetic neuralgia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Pain 2003; 104: 323-331 (class I).
78. Eisenberg E, Kleiser A, Dortort A, et al. The NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptor antagonist memantine in the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. European Journal of Pain 1998; 2: 321-327 (class II).
79. Max MB, Schafer SC, Culnane M, et al. Amitriptyline, but not lorazepam, relieves postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology 1988; 38: 1427-1432 (class II).
80. Cruccu G, Truini A. Trigeminal neuralgia and orofacial pains. In: Pappagallo M, ed. The Neurological Basis of Pain. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005: 401-414.
81. Sindrup SH, Jensen TS. Pharmacotherapy of trigeminal neuralgia. Clinical Journal of Pain 2002; 18: 22-27.
82. Campbell FG, Graham JG, and Zilkha KJ. Clinical trial of carbamazepine (tegretol) in trigeminal neuralgia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1966; 29: 265-267.
83. Jensen TS. Anticonvulsants in neuropathic pain: rationale and clinical evidence. European Journal of Pain 2002; 6(Suppl. A): 61-68.
84. Kutluay E, McCague K, D'Souza J, et al. Safety and tolerability of oxcarbazepine in elderly patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior 2003; 4: 175-180.
85. Liebel JT, Menger N, Langohr H. Oxcarbazepine in der Behandlung der Trigeminus neuralgie. Nervenheilkunde 2001; 20: 461-465 (class II).
86. Beydoun A. Safety and efficacy of oxcarbazepine: results of randomized, double-blind trials. Pharmacotherapy 2000; 20: 152S-158S.
87. Zakrzewska JM, Chaudhry Z, Nurmikko TJ, et al. Lamotrigine (lamictal) in refractory trigeminal neuralgia: results from a double-blind placebo controlled crossover trial. Pain 1997; 73: 223-230 (class II).
88. Fromm GH, Terrence CF, Chattha AS. Baclofen in the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia: double-blind study and long-term follow-up. Annals of Neurology 1984; 15: 240-244 (class II).
89. Fromm GH, Terrence CF. Comparison of L-baclofen and racemic baclofen in trigeminal neuralgia. Neurology 1987; 37: 1725-1728 (class II).
90. Lindstrom P, Lindblom U. The analgesic effect of tocainide in trigeminal neuralgia. Pain 1987; 28: 45-50 (class II).
91. Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Lechin ME, et al. Pimozide therapy for trigeminal neuralgia. Archives of Neurology 1989; 46: 960-963 (class II).
92. Kondziolka D, Lemley T, Kestle JR, et al. The effect of single-application topical ophthalmic anesthesia in patients with trigeminal neuralgia. A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Neurosurgery 1994; 80: 993-997 (class I).
93. Epstein JB, Marcoe JH. Topical application of capsaicin for treatment of oral neuropathic pain and trigeminal neuralgia. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, and Oral Pathology 1994) 77: 135-140 (class III).
94. Vilming ST, Lyberg T, Lataste X. Tizanidine in the management of trigeminal neuralgia. Cephalalgia 1986; 6: 181-182 (class III).
95. Fromm GH, Aumentado D, Terrence CF. A clinical and experimental investigation of the effects of tizanidine in trigeminal neuralgia. Pain 1993; 53: 265-271 (class I).
96. Nurmikko TJ, Eldridge PR. Trigeminal neuralgia - pathophysiology, diagnosis and current treatment. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2001; 87: 117-132.
97. Boivie J. Central pain. In: MacMahon SB, Koltzenburg M (eds), Wall and Melzack's Textbook of Pain. Churchill Livingstone: Elsevier, 2005: 1057-1075.
98. Attal N, Bouhassira D. Central neuropathic pain. In: Pappagallo M, ed. The Neurological Basis of Pain. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2005: 301-319.
99. Leijon G, Boivie J. Central post-stroke pain - a controlled trial of amitriptyline and carbamazepine. Pain 1989; 36: 27-36 (class I).
100. Cardenas DD, Warms CA, Turner JA, et al. Efficacy of amitriptyline for relief of pain in spinal cord injury: results of a randomized controlled trial. Pain 2002; 96: 365-373 (class I).
101. Vestergaard K, Andersen G, Gottrup H, et al. Lamotrigine for central poststroke pain: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology 2001; 56: 184-190 (class I).
102. Finnerup NB, Sindrup SH, Bach FW, et al. Lamotrigine in spinal cord injury pain: a randomized controlled trial. Pain 2002; 96: 375-383 (class I).
103. Levendoglu F, Ogun CO, Ozerbil O, et al. Gabapentin is a first line drug for the treatment of neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury. Spine 2004; 29: 743-751 (class II).
104. Drewes AM, Andreasen A, Poulsen LH. Valproate for treatment of chronic central pain after spinal cord injury. A double-blind cross-over study. Paraplegia 1994; 32: 565-569 (class II).
105. Chiou-Tan FY, Tuel SM, Johnson JC, et al. Effect of mexiletine on spinal cord injury dysesthetic pain. American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1996; 75: 84-87 (class I).
106. Svendsen KB, Jensen TS, Bach FW. The cannabinoid dronabinol reduces central pain in Multiple Sclerosis. A randomised double-blind placebo controlled cross-over trial. British Medical Journal 2004; 329: 253-261 (class I).
107. Rog DJ, Nurmikko TJ, Friede T, et al. Randomized, controlled trial of cannabis-based medicine in central pain in multiple sclerosis. Neurology 2005; 65: 812-819 (class I).
108. Kingery WS. A critical review of controlled clinical trials for peripheral neuropathic pain and complex regional pain syndromes. Pain 1997; 73: 123-139.
109. Caraceni A, Zecca E, Bonezzi C, et al. Gabapentin for neuropathic cancer pain: a randomized controlled trial from the Gabapentin Cancer Pain Study Group. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2004; 22: 2909-2917.
110. Mercadante S, Arcuri E, Tirelli W, et al. Amitriptyline in neuropathic cancer pain in patients on morphine therapy: a randomized placebo-controlled, double-blind crossover study. Tumori 2002; 88: 239-242 (class II).
111. Kalso E, Tasmuth T, Neuvonen PJ. Amitriptyline effectively relieves neuropathic pain following treatment of breast cancer. Pain 1996; 64: 293-302 (class II).
112. Tasmuth T, Hartel B, Kalso E. Venlafaxine in neuropathic pain following treatment of breast cancer. European Journal of Pain 2002; 6: 17-24 (class II).
113. Ellison N, Loprinzi CL, Kugler J, et al. Phase III placebo-controlled trial of capsaicin cream in the management of surgical neuropathic pain in cancer patients. Journal of Clinical Oncology 1997; 15: 2974-2980 (class I).
114. Watson CP, Evans RJ. The postmastectomy pain syndrome and topical capsaicin: a randomized trial. Pain 1992; 51: 375-379 (class II).
115. Scadding JW, Wall PD, Parry CB, et al. Clinical trial of propranolol in post-traumatic neuralgia. Pain 1982; 14: 283-292 (class II).
116. Berman JS, Symonds C, Birch R. Efficacy of two cannabis based medicinal extracts for relief of central neuropathic pain from brachial plexus avulsion: results of a randomised controlled trial. Pain 2004; 112: 299-306 (class I).
117. Bone M, Critchley P, Buggy DJ. Gabapentin in postamputation phantom limb pain: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 2002; 27: 481-486 (class II).
118. Huse E, Larbig W, Flor H, Birbaumer N. The effect of opioids on phantom limb pain and cortical reorganization. Pain 2001; 90: 47-55.
119. Journal of Clinical Oncology; 22: 2909-2917 (class II).
120. Maier C, Dertwinkel R, Mansourian N, et al. Efficacy of the NMDA-receptor antagonist memantine in patients with chronic phantom limb pain - results of a randomized double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Pain 2003; 103: 277-283 (class I).
121. Robinson LR, Czerniecki JM, Ehde DM, et al. Trial of amitriptyline for relief of pain in amputees: results of a randomized controlled study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2004; 85: 1-6 (class II).
122. Pandey CK, Bose N, Garg G, et al. Gabapentin for the treatment of pain in Guillain-Barre syndrome: a double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2002; 95: 1719-1723 (class II).
123. Pandey CK, Raza M, Tripathi M, et al. The comparative evaluation of gabapentin and carbamazepine for pain management in Guillain-Barre syndrome patients in the intensive care unit. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2005; 101: 220-225 (class II).
124. Hughes RA, Wijdicks EF, Benson E, et al. Multidisciplinary Consensus Group. Supportive care for patients with Guillain-Barre syndrome. Archives of Neurology 2005; 62: 1194-1198.
125. Semenchuk MR, Sherman S, Davis B. Double-blind, randomized trial of bupropion SR for the treatment of neuropathic pain. Neurology 2001; 57: 1583-1588 (class I).
126. Panerai AE, Monza G, Movilia P, et al. A randomized, within-patient, cross-over, placebo-controlled trial on the efficacy and tolerability of the tricyclic antidepressants chlorimipramine and nortriptyline in central pain. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 1990; 82: 34-38 (class II).
127. Langohr HD, Stohr M, Petruch F. An open and double-blind cross-over study on the efficacy of clomipramine (Anafranil) in patients with painful mono- and polyneuropathies. European Neurology 1982; 21: 309-317 (class II).
128. Harke H, Gretenkort P, Ladleif HU, Rahman S, Harke O. The response of neuropathic pain and pain in complex regional pain syndrome I to carbamazepine and sustained-release morphine in patients pretreated with spinal cord stimulation: a double-blinded randomized study. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2001; 92: 488-495 (class II).
129. Chabal C, Jacobson L, Mariano A, et al. The use of oral mexiletine for the treatment of pain after peripheral nerve injury. Anesthesiology 1992; 76: 513-517 (class I).
130. Wallace MS, Magnuson S, Ridgeway B. Efficacy of oral mexiletine for neuropathic pain with allodynia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 2000; 25: 459-467 (class I).
131. Galer BS, Twilling LL, Harle J, et al. Lack of efficacy of riluzole in the treatment of peripheral neuropathic pain conditions. Neurology 2005; 55: 971-975 (class II).
132. McQuay HJ, Carroll D, Jadad AR, et al. Dextromethorphan for the treatment of neuropathic pain: a double-blind randomised controlled crossover trial with integral n-of-1 design. Pain 1994; 59: 127-133 (class II).
133. Serpell MG. Neuropathic pain study group. Gabapentin in neuropathic pain syndromes: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Pain 2002; 99: 557-566 (class II).
134. Karst M, Salim K, Burstein S, Conrad I, Hoy I, Schneider U. Analgesic effect of the synthetic cannabinoid CT-3 on chronic neuropathic pain: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 2003; 290: 1757-1762.
135. McCleane GJ. 200 mg daily of lamotrigine has no analgesic effect in neuropathic pain: a randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled trial. Pain 1999; 83: 105-107 (class III).
136. McCleane G. Topical application of doxepin hydrochloride, capsaicin and a combination of both produces analgesia in chronic human neuropathic pain: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2000; 49: 574-579 (class III).
137. Max MB, Kishore-Kumar R, Schafer SC, et al. Efficacy of desipramine in painful diabetic neuropathy: a placebo-controlled trial. Pain 1991; 45: 3-9 (class I).
138. Kishore-Kumar R, Max MB, Schafer SC, et al. Desipramine relieves postherpetic neuralgia. Clinical Pharmacology and therapeutics 1990; 47: 305-312 (class II).
139. Beydoun A. Clinical use of tricyclic anticonvulsants in painful neuropathies and bipolar disorders. Epilepsy & Behavior 2002; 3: S18-S22.
140. Carrazana E, Mikoshiba E. Rationale and evidence for the use of oxcarbazepine in neuropathic pain. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 2003; 25: S31-S35.
141. Cruccu G, Anand P, Attal N, et al. EFNS guidelines on neuropathic pain assessment. European Journal of Neurology 2004; 11: 153-162.
142. Ray WA, Meredith S, Thapa PB, et al. Cyclic antidepressants and the risk of sudden cardiac death. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2004; 75: 234-241.
143. Watson CP, Evans RJ, Reed K, et al. Amitryptiline versus placebo in post-herpetic neuralgia. Neurology 1982; 32: 671-673 (class II).
144. Degner D, Grohmann R, Kropp S et al. Severe adverse drug reactions of antidepressants: results of the German multicenter drug surveillance program AMSP. Pharmacopsychiatry 2004; 37(Suppl. 1): S39-S45.
145. Betts T, Goodwin G, Withers RM, et al. Human safety of lamotrigine. Epilepsia 1991; 32(Suppl. 2): S17-S21.
146. Kalso E, Allan L, Dellemijn PL et al. Recommendations for using opioids in chronic non-cancer pain. European Journal of Pain 2003; 7: 381-386.
147. Sindrup SH, Jensen TS. Efficacy of pharmacological treatments of neuropathic pain: an update and effect related to mechanism of action. Pain 1999; 83: 389-400.
148. McQuay HJ. Neuropathic pain: evidence matters. European Journal of Pain 2002; 6(Suppl. A): 11-18.