Chapter 27 The biochemistry of dysfunctional emotions: proton MR spectroscopic findings in major depressive disorder

Progress in Brain Research

Volumn 156, Issue , 2006, Pages 481-501

  Ende, Gabriele ^a   Demirakca, Traute ^a,b   Tost, Heike ^a  

^a CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH   (Germany)

^b HEIDELBERG ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES   (Germany)

Author keywords

emotions; major depressive disorder (MDD); proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MRS)

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID; CHOLINE; CREATINE; CREATINE PHOSPHATE; GLUTAMIC ACID; GLUTAMINE; INOSITOL; N ACETYLASPARTIC ACID; NEUROTRANSMITTER; PROTON;

AMYGDALOID NUCLEUS; ATTENTION; BASAL GANGLION; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; BRAIN DAMAGE; BRAIN DEPTH STIMULATION; BRAIN DYSFUNCTION; CINGULATE GYRUS; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; EMOTIONAL DISORDER; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMAN; LEARNING; MAJOR DEPRESSION; METABOLITE; MORPHOMETRICS; MOTIVATION; NEUROIMAGING; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTON NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE; REVIEW; TEMPORAL LOBE; WHITE MATTER; BRAIN; EMOTION; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY;

BRAIN; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER, MAJOR; EMOTIONS; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; PROTONS;

EID: 33749063822     PISSN: 00796123     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/S0079-6123(06)56027-3     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Abercrombie H.C., Schaefer S.M., Larson C.L., Oakes T.R., Lindgren K.A., Holden J.E., Perlman S.B., Turski P.A., Krahn D.D., Benca R.M., and Davidson R.J. Metabolic rate in the right amygdala predicts negative affect in depressed patients. Neuroreport 9 (1998) 3301-3307
2. Adolphs R., Tranel D., Damasio H., and Damasio A. Impaired recognition of emotion in facial expressions following bilateral damage to the human amygdala. Nature 372 (1994) 669-672
3. Almeida O.P., Burton E.J., Ferrier N., McKeith I.G., and O'Brien J.T. Depression with late onset is associated with right frontal lobe atrophy. Psychol. Med. 33 (2003) 675-681
4. Auer D.P., Putz B., Kraft E., Lipinski B., Schill J., and Holsboer F. Reduced glutamate in the anterior cingulate cortex in depression: an in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Biol. Psychiatry 47 (2000) 305-313
5. Ballmaier M., Toga A.W., Blanton R.E., Sowell E.R., Lavretsky H., Peterson J., Pham D., and Kumar A. Anterior cingulate, gyrus rectus, and orbitofrontal abnormalities in elderly depressed patients: an MRI-based parcellation of the prefrontal cortex. Am. J. Psychiatry 161 (2004) 99-108
6. Beck A.T. The current state of cognitive therapy: a 40-year retrospective. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62 (2005) 953-959
7. Beck A.T., Rush A.J., and Shaw B.G.E. Cognitive Therapy of Depression (1979), Guilford Press, New York
8. Bench C.J., Friston K.J., Brown R.G., Scott L.C., Frackowiak R.S., and Dolan R.J. The anatomy of melancholia-focal abnormalities of cerebral blood flow in major depression. Psychol. Med. 22 (1992) 607-615
9. Blasi G., Bertolino A., Brudaglio F., Sciota D., Altamura M., Antonucci N., Scarabino T., Weinberger D.R., and Nardini M. Hippocampal neurochemical pathology in patients at first episode of affective psychosis: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study. Psychiatry Res. 131 (2004) 95-105
10. Botteron K.N., Raichle M.E., Drevets W.C., Heath A.C., and Todd R.D. Volumetric reduction in left subgenual prefrontal cortex in early onset depression. Biol. Psychiatry 51 (2002) 342-344
11. Boulanger Y., Labelle M., and Khiat A. Role of phospholipase A(2) on the variations of the choline signal intensity observed by 1 H magnetic resonance spectroscopy in brain diseases. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 33 (2000) 380-389
12. Bradley B.P., Mogg K., and Lee S.C. Attentional biases for negative information in induced and naturally occurring dysphoria. Behav. Res. Ther. 35 (1997) 911-927
13. Bradley B.P., Mogg K., and Millar N. Implicit memory bias in clinical and non-clinical depression. Behav. Res. Ther. 34 (1996) 865-879
14. Brambilla P., Stanley J.A., Nicoletti M.A., Sassi R.B., Mallinger A.G., Frank E., Kupfer D.J., Keshavan M.S., and Soares J.C. 1 H Magnetic resonance spectroscopy study of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in unipolar mood disorder patients. Psychiatry Res. 138 (2005) 131-139
15. Breiter H.C., Etcoff N.L., Whalen P.J., Kennedy W.A., Rauch S.L., Buckner R.L., Strauss M.M., Hyman S.E., and Rosen B.R. Response and habituation of the human amygdala during visual processing of facial expression. Neuron 17 (1996) 875-887
16. Bremner J.D., Innis R.B., Salomon R.M., Staib L.H., Ng C.K., Miller H.L., Bronen R.A., Krystal J.H., Duncan J., Rich D., Price L.H., Malison R., Dey H., Soufer R., and Charney D.S. Positron emission tomography measurement of cerebral metabolic correlates of tryptophan depletion-induced depressive relapse. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 54 (1997) 364-374
17. Bremner J.D., Narayan M., Anderson E.R., Staib L.H., Miller H.L., and Charney D.S. Hippocampal volume reduction in major depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 157 (2000) 115-118
18. Bremner J.D., Vythilingam M., Vermetten E., Nazeer A., Adil J., Khan S., Staib L.H., and Charney D.S. Reduced volume of orbitofrontal cortex in major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 51 (2002) 273-279
19. Caetano S.C., Fonseca M., Olvera R.L., Nicoletti M., Hatch J.P., Stanley J.A., Hunter K., Lafer B., Pliszka S.R., and Soares J.C. Proton spectroscopy study of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in pediatric depressed patients. Neurosci. Lett. 384 (2005) 321-326
20. Canli T., Cooney R.E., Goldin P., Shah M., Sivers H., Thomason M.E., Whitfield-Gabrieli S., Gabrieli J.D., and Gotlib I.H. Amygdala reactivity to emotional faces predicts improvement in major depression. Neuroreport 16 (2005) 1267-1270
21. Canli T., Sivers H., Thomason M.E., Whitfield-Gabrieli S., Gabrieli J.D., and Gotlib I.H. Brain activation to emotional words in depressed vs healthy subjects. Neuroreport 15 (2004) 2585-2588
22. Cardoner N., Pujol J., Vallejo J., Urretavizcaya M., Deus J., Lopez-Sala A., Benlloch L., and Menchon J.M. Enlargement of brain cerebrospinal fluid spaces as a predictor of poor clinical outcome in melancholia. J. Clin. Psychiatry 64 (2003) 691-697
23. Charles H.C., Lazeyras F., Krishnan K.R., Boyko O.B., Payne M., and Moore D. Brain choline in depression: in vivo detection of potential pharmacodynamic effects of antidepressant therapy using hydrogen localized spectroscopy. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 18 (1994) 1121-1127
24. Clark D.M., and Teasdale J.D. Diurnal variation in clinical depression and accessibility of memories of positive and negative experiences. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 91 (1982) 87-95
25. Coffey C.E., Figiel G.S., Djang W.T., Saunders W.B., and Weiner R.D. White matter hyperintensity on magnetic resonance imaging: clinical and neuroanatomic correlates in the depressed elderly. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 1 (1989) 135-144
26. Coryell W., Nopoulos P., Drevets W., Wilson T., and Andreasen N.C. Subgenual prefrontal cortex volumes in major depressive disorder and schizophrenia: diagnostic specificity and prognostic implications. Am. J. Psychiatry 162 (2005) 1706-1712
27. Cotter D., Mackay D., Chana G., Beasley C., Landau S., and Everall I.P. Reduced neuronal size and glial cell density in area 9 of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in subjects with major depressive disorder. Cereb. Cortex 12 (2002) 386-394
28. Coupland N.J., Ogilvie C.J., Hegadoren K.M., Seres P., Hanstock C.C., and Allen P.S. Decreased prefrontal Myo-inositol in major depressive disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 57 (2005) 1526-1534
29. Danielsen E.R., and Ross B. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Diagnosis of Neurological Diseases (1999), Marcel Dekker, New York
30. de Leeuw F.E., de Groot J.C., Achten E., Oudkerk M., Ramos L.M., Heijboer R., Hofman A., Jolles J., van Gijn J., and Breteler M.M. Prevalence of cerebral white matter lesions in elderly people: a population based magnetic resonance imaging study. The Rotterdam Scan Study. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 70 (2001) 9-14
31. Dolan R.J., Bench C.J., Brown R.G., Scott L.C., and Frackowiak R.S. Neuropsychological dysfunction in depression: the relationship to regional cerebral blood flow. Psychol. Med. 24 (1994) 849-857
32. Duman R.S. Pathophysiology of depression: the concept of synaptic plasticity. Eur. Psychiatry 17 Suppl 3 (2002) 306-310
33. Duman R.S. Synaptic plasticity and mood disorders. Mol. Psychiatry 7 Suppl 1 (2002) S29-S34
34. Elliott R., Rubinsztein J.S., Sahakian B.J., and Dolan R.J. The neural basis of mood-congruent processing biases in depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 59 (2002) 597-604
35. Ende G., Braus D.F., Walter S., Weber-Fahr W., and Henn F.A. The hippocampus in patients treated with electroconvulsive therapy: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57 (2000) 937-943
36. Ende, G., Demirakca, T., Walter, S., Wokrina, T. and Henn, F.A. (in press). Subcortical and medial temporal MR-detectable metabolite abnormalities in unipolar major depression. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci.
37. Erickson K., Drevets W.C., Clark L., Cannon D.M., Bain E.E., Zarate Jr. C.A., Charney D.S., and Sahakian B.J. Mood-congruent bias in affective go/no-go performance of unmedicated patients with major depressive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 162 (2005) 2171-2173
38. Farchione T.R., Moore G.J., and Rosenberg D.R. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging in pediatric major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 52 (2002) 86-92
39. Fossati P., Harvey P.O., Le Bastard G., Ergis A.M., Jouvent R., and Allilaire J.F. Verbal memory performance of patients with a first depressive episode and patients with unipolar and bipolar recurrent depression. J. Psychiatr. Res. 38 (2004) 137-144
40. Frey R., Metzler D., Fischer P., Heiden A., Scharfetter J., Moser E., and Kasper S. Myo-inositol in depressive and healthy subjects determined by frontal 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy at 1.5 tesla. J. Psychiatr. Res. 32 (1998) 411-420
41. Frodl T., Meisenzahl E.M., Zetzsche T., Hohne T., Banac S., Schorr C., Jager M., Leinsinger G., Bottlender R., Reiser M., and Moller H.J. Hippocampal and amygdala changes in patients with major depressive disorder and healthy controls during a 1-year follow-up. J. Clin. Psychiatry 65 (2004) 492-499
42. Fu C.H., Williams S.C., Cleare A.J., Brammer M.J., Walsh N.D., Kim J., Andrew C.M., Pich E.M., Williams P.M., Reed L.J., Mitterschiffthaler M.T., Suckling J., and Bullmore E.T. Attenuation of the neural response to sad faces in major depression by antidepressant treatment: a prospective, event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61 (2004) 877-889
43. George M.S., Ketter T.A., Parekh P.I., Horwitz B., Herscovitch P., and Post R.M. Brain activity during transient sadness and happiness in healthy women. Am. J. Psychiatry 152 (1995) 341-351
44. George M.S., Ketter T.A., Parekh P.I., Rosinsky N., Ring H.A., Pazzaglia P.J., Marangell L.B., Callahan A.M., and Post R.M. Blunted left cingulate activation in mood disorder subjects during a response interference task (the Stroop). J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 9 (1997) 55-63
45. Gonul A.S., Kitis O., Ozan E., Akdeniz F., Eker C., Eker O.D., and Vahip S. The effect of antidepressant treatment on N-acetyl aspartate levels of medial frontal cortex in drug-free depressed patients. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 30 (2006) 120-125
46. Gotlib I.H., Sivers H., Gabrieli J.D., Whitfield-Gabrieli S., Goldin P., Minor K.L., and Canli T. Subgenual anterior cingulate activation to valenced emotional stimuli in major depression. Neuroreport 16 (2005) 1731-1734
47. Grachev I.D., Ramachandran T.S., Thomas P.S., Szeverenyi N.M., and Fredrickson B.E. Association between dorsolateral prefrontal N-acetyl aspartate and depression in chronic back pain: an in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. J. Neural. Transm. 110 (2003) 287-312
48. Gruber S., Frey R., Mlynarik V., Stadlbauer A., Heiden A., Kasper S., Kemp G.J., and Moser E. Quantification of metabolic differences in the frontal brain of depressive patients and controls obtained by 1H-MRS at 3 Tesla. Invest. Radiol. 38 (2003) 403-408
49. Gur R.C., Erwin R.J., Gur R.E., Zwil A.S., Heimberg C., and Kraemer H.C. Facial emotion discrimination: II. Behavioral findings in depression. Psychiatry Res. 42 (1992) 241-251
50. Haaga D.A., and Beck A.T. Perspectives on depressive realism: implications for cognitive theory of depression. Behav. Res. Ther. 33 (1995) 41-48
51. Hamann S., and Mao H. Positive and negative emotional verbal stimuli elicit activity in the left amygdala. Neuroreport 13 (2002) 15-19
52. Hamidi M., Drevets W.C., and Price J.L. Glial reduction in amygdala in major depressive disorder is due to oligodendrocytes. Biol. Psychiatry 55 (2004) 563-569
53. Harwood A.J. Lithium and bipolar mood disorder: the inositol-depletion hypothesis revisited. Mol. Psychiatry 10 (2005) 117-126
54. Hastings R.S., Parsey R.V., Oquendo M.A., Arango V., and Mann J.J. Volumetric analysis of the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus in major depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 29 (2004) 952-959
55. Herbert, C., Kissler, J., Junghöfer, M., Peyk, P., Wildgruber, D., Ethofer, T. and Grodd, W. (2005). Sexy, successful, dynamic: left amygdala activation during reading of pleasant adjectives. HBM 2005 237, Toronto, CA.
56. 31P spectroscopic imaging of human brain at 4 Tesla: assessment of gray and white matter differences of phosphocreatine and ATP. Magn. Reson. Med. 45 (2001) 46-52
57. Hickie I., Naismith S., Ward P.B., Turner K., Scott E., Mitchell P., Wilhelm K., and Parker G. Reduced hippocampal volumes and memory loss in patients with early- and late-onset depression. Br. J. Psychiatry 186 (2005) 197-202
58. Ho A.P., Gillin J.C., Buchsbaum M.S., Wu J.C., Abel L., and Bunney Jr. W.E. Brain glucose metabolism during non-rapid eye movement sleep in major depression. A positron emission tomography study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 53 (1996) 645-652
59. Hsieh M.H., McQuoid D.R., Levy R.M., Payne M.E., MacFall J.R., and Steffens D.C. Hippocampal volume and antidepressant response in geriatric depression. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 17 (2002) 519-525
60. Janssen J., Hulshoff Pol H.E., Lampe I.K., Schnack H.G., de Leeuw F.E., Kahn R.S., and Heeren T.J. Hippocampal changes and white matter lesions in early-onset depression. Biol. Psychiatry 56 (2004) 825-831
61. 2) of the proton MRS creatine resonance in human brain. Magn. Reson. Med. 47 (2002) 232-238
62. Kempermann G., and Kronenberg G. Depressed new neurons-adult hippocampal neurogenesis and a cellular plasticity hypothesis of major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 54 (2003) 499-503
63. Kumar A., Thomas A., Lavretsky H., Yue K., Huda A., Curran J., Venkatraman T., Estanol L., Mintz J., Mega M., and Toga A. Frontal white matter biochemical abnormalities in late-life major depression detected with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Am. J. Psychiatry 159 (2002) 630-636
64. Kusumakar V., MacMaster F.P., Gates L., Sparkes S.J., and Khan S.C. Left medial temporal cytosolic choline in early onset depression. Can. J. Psychiatry 46 (2001) 959-964
65. Lacerda A.L., Keshavan M.S., Hardan A.Y., Yorbik O., Brambilla P., Sassi R.B., Nicoletti M., Mallinger A.G., Frank E., Kupfer D.J., and Soares J.C. Anatomic evaluation of the orbitofrontal cortex in major depressive disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 55 (2004) 353-358
66. Lacerda A.L., Nicoletti M.A., Brambilla P., Sassi R.B., Mallinger A.G., Frank E., Kupfer D.J., Keshavan M.S., and Soares J.C. Anatomical MRI study of basal ganglia in major depressive disorder. Psychiatry Res. 124 (2003) 129-140
67. Lampe I.K., Hulshoff Pol H.E., Janssen J., Schnack H.G., Kahn R.S., and Heeren T.J. Association of depression duration with reduction of global cerebral gray matter volume in female patients with recurrent major depressive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 160 (2003) 2052-2054
68. Lavretsky H., Roybal D.J., Ballmaier M., Toga A.W., and Kumar A. Antidepressant exposure may protect against decrement in frontal gray matter volumes in geriatric depression. J. Clin. Psychiatry 66 (2005) 964-967
69. Lekwauwa R.E., McQuoid D.R., and Steffens D.C. Hippocampal volume as a predictor of short-term ECT outcomes in older patients with depression. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 13 (2005) 910-913
70. Leppanen J.M., Milders M., Bell J.S., Terriere E., and Hietanen J.K. Depression biases the recognition of emotionally neutral faces. Psychiatry Res. 128 (2004) 123-133
71. Liotti M., Mayberg H.S., Brannan S.K., McGinnis S., Jerabek P., and Fox P.T. Differential limbic-cortical correlates of sadness and anxiety in healthy subjects: implications for affective disorders. Biol. Psychiatry 48 (2000) 30-42
72. Liotti M., Mayberg H.S., McGinnis S., Brannan S.L., and Jerabek P. Unmasking disease-specific cerebral blood flow abnormalities: mood challenge in patients with remitted unipolar depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 159 (2002) 1830-1840
73. Lloyd G.G., and Lishman W.A. Effect of depression on the speed of recall of pleasant and unpleasant experiences. Psychol. Med. 5 (1975) 173-180
74. MacMillan S., Szeszko P.R., Moore G.J., Madden R., Lorch E., Ivey J., Banerjee S.P., and Rosenberg D.R. Increased amygdala: hippocampal volume ratios associated with severity of anxiety in pediatric major depression. J. Child. Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 13 (2003) 65-73
75. Maddock R.J., Garrett A.S., and Buonocore M.H. Posterior cingulate cortex activation by emotional words: fMRI evidence from a valence decision task. Hum. Brain Mapp. 18 (2003) 30-41
76. Mathews A., Ridgeway V., and Williamson D.A. Evidence for attention to threatening stimuli in depression. Behav. Res. Ther. 34 (1996) 695-705
77. Mayberg H.S., Brannan S.K., Tekell J.L., Silva J.A., Mahurin R.K., McGinnis S., and Jerabek P.A. Regional metabolic effects of fluoxetine in major depression: serial changes and relationship to clinical response. Biol. Psychiatry 48 (2000) 830-843
78. Mayberg H.S., Liotti M., Brannan S.K., McGinnis S., Mahurin R.K., Jerabek P.A., Silva J.A., Tekell J.L., Martin C.C., Lancaster J.L., and Fox P.T. Reciprocal limbic-cortical function and negative mood: converging PET findings in depression and normal sadness. Am. J. Psychiatry 156 (1999) 675-682
79. McEwen B.S. The neurobiology of stress: from serendipity to clinical relevance. Brain Res. 886 (2000) 172-189
80. Michael N., Erfurth A., Ohrmann P., Arolt V., Heindel W., and Pfleiderer B. Metabolic changes within the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex occurring with electroconvulsive therapy in patients with treatment resistant unipolar depression. Psychol. Med. 33 (2003) 1277-1284
81. Michael N., Erfurth A., Ohrmann P., Arolt V., Heindel W., and Pfleiderer B. Neurotrophic effects of electroconvulsive therapy: a proton magnetic resonance study of the left amygdalar region in patients with treatment-resistant depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (2003) 720-725
82. Morris J.S., Frith C.D., Perrett D.I., Rowland D., Young A.W., Calder A.J., and Dolan R.J. A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions. Nature 383 (1996) 812-815
83. Murphy F.C., Sahakian B.J., Rubinsztein J.S., Michael A., Rogers R.D., Robbins T.W., and Paykel E.S. Emotional bias and inhibitory control processes in mania and depression. Psychol. Med. 29 (1999) 1307-1321
84. Naismith S., Hickie I., Ward P.B., Turner K., Scott E., Little C., Mitchell P., Wilhelm K., and Parker G. Caudate nucleus volumes and genetic determinants of homocysteine metabolism in the prediction of psychomotor speed in older persons with depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 159 (2002) 2096-2098
85. Nandrino J.L., Dodin V., Martin P., and Henniaux M. Emotional information processing in first and recurrent major depressive episodes. J. Psychiatry. Res. 38 (2004) 475-484
86. Neumeister A., Wood S., Bonne O., Nugent A.C., Luckenbaugh D.A., Young T., Bain E.E., Charney D.S., and Drevets W.C. Reduced hippocampal volume in unmedicated, remitted patients with major depression versus control subjects. Biol. Psychiatry 57 (2005) 935-937
87. Nolan C.L., Moore G.J., Madden R., Farchione T., Bartoi M., Lorch E., Stewart C.M., and Rosenberg D.R. Prefrontal cortical volume in childhood-onset major depression: preliminary findings. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 59 (2002) 173-179
88. Nolen-Hoeksema S. The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 109 (2000) 504-511
89. Noworolski S.M., Nelson S.J., Henry R.G., Day M.R., Wald L.L., Star-Lack J., and Vigneron D.B. High spatial resolution 1H-MRSI and segmented MRI of cortical gray matter and subcortical white matter in three regions of the human brain. Magn. Reson. Med. 41 (1999) 21-29
90. O'Brien J.T., Ames D., Schweitzer I., Desmond P., Coleman P., and Tress B. Clinical, magnetic resonance imaging and endocrinological differences between delusional and non-delusional depression in the elderly. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 12 (1997) 211-218
91. O'Brien J.T., Lloyd A., McKeith I., Gholkar A., and Ferrier N. A longitudinal study of hippocampal volume, cortisol levels, and cognition in older depressed subjects. Am. J. Psychiatry 161 (2004) 2081-2090
92. Omura K., Todd Constable R., and Canli T. Amygdala gray matter concentration is associated with extraversion and neuroticism. Neuroreport 16 (2005) 1905-1908
93. Pardo J.V., Pardo P.J., and Raichle M.E. Neural correlates of self-induced dysphoria. Am. J. Psychiatry 150 (1993) 713-719
94. Persad S.M., and Polivy J. Differences between depressed and nondepressed individuals in the recognition of and response to facial emotional cues. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 102 (1993) 358-368
95. Pfleiderer B., Michael N., Erfurth A., Ohrmann P., Hohmann U., Wolgast M., Fiebich M., Arolt V., and Heindel W. Effective electroconvulsive therapy reverses glutamate/glutamine deficit in the left anterior cingulum of unipolar depressed patients. Psychiatry Res. 122 (2003) 185-192
96. Posener J.A., Wang L., Price J.L., Gado M.H., Province M.A., Miller M.I., Babb C.M., and Csernansky J.G. High-dimensional mapping of the hippocampus in depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 160 (2003) 83-89
97. Renshaw P.F., Lafer B., Babb S.M., Fava M., Stoll A.L., Christensen J.D., Moore C.M., Yurgelun-Todd D.A., Bonello C.M., Pillay S.S., Rothschild A.J., Nierenberg A.A., Rosenbaum J.F., and Cohen B.M. Basal ganglia choline levels in depression and response to fluoxetine treatment: an in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Biol. Psychiatry 41 (1997) 837-843
98. Robinson R.G., and Lipsey J.R. Cerebral localization of emotion based on clinical-neuropathological correlations: methodological issues. Psychiatry Dev. 3 (1985) 335-347
99. Rosenberg D.R., Macmaster F.P., Mirza Y., Smith J.M., Easter P.C., Banerjee S.P., Bhandari R., Boyd C., Lynch M., Rose M., Ivey J., Villafuerte R.A., Moore G.J., and Renshaw P. Reduced anterior cingulate glutamate in pediatric major depression: a magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Biol. Psychiatry 58 (2005) 700-704
100. Ross B., and Michaelis T. Clinical applications of magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Magn. Reson. Q 10 (1994) 191-247
101. Rosso I.M., Cintron C.M., Steingard R.J., Renshaw P.F., Young A.D., and Yurgelun-Todd D.A. Amygdala and hippocampus volumes in pediatric major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 57 (2005) 21-26
102. 1H NMR measurements of γ-aminobutyric acid in human brain in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90 (1993) 5662-5666
103. Sanacora G., Gueorguieva R., Epperson C.N., Wu Y.T., Appel M., Rothman D.L., Krystal J.H., and Mason G.F. Subtype-specific alterations of gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate in patients with major depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61 (2004) 705-713
104. Schuff N., Amend D., Ezekiel F., Steinman S.K., Tanabe J., Norman D., Jagust W., Kramer J.H., Mastrianni J.A., Fein G., and Weiner M.W. Changes of hippocampal N-acetyl aspartate and volume in Alzheimer's disease. A proton MR spectroscopic imaging and MRI study. Neurology 49 (1997) 1513-1521
105. Segal Z.V., Williams J.M., Teasdale J.D., and Gemar M. A cognitive science perspective on kindling and episode sensitization in recurrent affective disorder. Psychol. Med. 26 (1996) 371-380
106. Sheline Y.I., Barch D.M., Donnelly J.M., Ollinger J.M., Snyder A.Z., and Mintun M.A. Increased amygdala response to masked emotional faces in depressed subjects resolves with antidepressant treatment: an fMRI study. Biol. Psychiatry 50 (2001) 651-658
107. Sheline Y.I., Gado M.H., and Kraemer H.C. Untreated depression and hippocampal volume loss. Am. J. Psychiatry 160 (2003) 1516-1518
108. Shestyuk A.Y., Deldin P.J., Brand J.E., and Deveney C.M. Reduced sustained brain activity during processing of positive emotional stimuli in major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 57 (2005) 1089-1096
109. Shulman R.G., Rothman D.L., Behar K.L., and Hyder F. Energetic basis of brain activity: implications for neuroimaging. Trends Neurosci. 27 (2004) 489-495
110. Siegle G.J., Steinhauer S.R., Thase M.E., Stenger V.A., and Carter C.S. Can't shake that feeling: event-related fMRI assessment of sustained amygdala activity in response to emotional information in depressed individuals. Biol. Psychiatry 51 (2002) 693-707
111. Sonawalla S.B., Renshaw P.F., Moore C.M., Alpert J.E., Nierenberg A.A., Rosenbaum J.F., and Fava M. Compounds containing cytosolic choline in the basal ganglia: a potential biological marker of true drug response to fluoxetine. Am. J. Psychiatry 156 (1999) 1638-1640
112. Steffens D.C., Helms M.J., Krishnan K.R., and Burke G.L. Cerebrovascular disease and depression symptoms in the cardiovascular health study. Stroke 30 (1999) 2159-2166
113. Steffens D.C., McQuoid D.R., Welsh-Bohmer K.A., and Krishnan K.R. Left orbital frontal cortex volume and performance on the benton visual retention test in older depressives and controls. Neuropsychopharmacology 28 (2003) 2179-2183
114. Steingard R.J., Renshaw P.F., Hennen J., Lenox M., Cintron C.B., Young A.D., Connor D.F., Au T.H., and Yurgelun-Todd D.A. Smaller frontal lobe white matter volumes in depressed adolescents. Biol. Psychiatry 52 (2002) 413-417
115. Steingard R.J., Yurgelun-Todd D.A., Hennen J., Moore J.C., Moore C.M., Vakili K., Young A.D., Katic A., Beardslee W.R., and Renshaw P.F. Increased orbitofrontal cortex levels of choline in depressed adolescents as detected by in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Biol. Psychiatry 48 (2000) 1053-1061
116. Surguladze S., Brammer M.J., Keedwell P., Giampietro V., Young A.W., Travis M.J., Williams S.C., and Phillips M.L. A differential pattern of neural response toward sad versus happy facial expressions in major depressive disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 57 (2005) 201-209
117. Surguladze S.A., Young A.W., Senior C., Brebion G., Travis M.J., and Phillips M.L. Recognition accuracy and response bias to happy and sad facial expressions in patients with major depression. Neuropsychology 18 (2004) 212-218
118. Taki Y., Kinomura S., Awata S., Inoue K., Sato K., Ito H., Goto R., Uchida S., Tsuji I., Arai H., Kawashima R., and Fukuda H. Male elderly subthreshold depression patients have smaller volume of medial part of prefrontal cortex and precentral gyrus compared with age-matched normal subjects: a voxel-based morphometry. J. Affect. Disord. 88 (2005) 313-320
119. Taylor W.D., MacFall J.R., Provenzale J.M., Payne M.E., McQuoid D.R., Steffens D.C., and Krishnan K.R. Serial MR imaging of volumes of hyperintense white matter lesions in elderly patients: correlation with vascular risk factors. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 181 (2003) 571-576
120. Taylor W.D., Steffens D.C., MacFall J.R., McQuoid D.R., Payne M.E., Provenzale J.M., and Krishnan K.R. White matter hyperintensity progression and late-life depression outcomes. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 60 (2003) 1090-1096
121. Taylor W.D., Steffens D.C., McQuoid D.R., Payne M.E., Lee S.H., Lai T.J., and Krishnan K.R. Smaller orbital frontal cortex volumes associated with functional disability in depressed elders. Biol. Psychiatry 53 (2003) 144-149
122. Taylor W.D., Steffens D.C., Payne M.E., MacFall J.R., Marchuk D.A., Svenson I.K., and Krishnan K.R. Influence of serotonin transporter promoter region polymorphisms on hippocampal volumes in late-life depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62 (2005) 537-544
123. Teasdale J.D., and Russell M.L. Differential effects of induced mood on the recall of positive, negative and neutral words. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 22 Pt 3 (1983) 163-171
124. Thomas K.M., Drevets W.C., Dahl R.E., Ryan N.D., Birmaher B., Eccard C.H., Axelson D., Whalen P.J., and Casey B.J. Amygdala response to fearful faces in anxious and depressed children. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 58 (2001) 1057-1063
125. Vakili K., Pillay S.S., Lafer B., Fava M., Renshaw P.F., Bonello-Cintron C.M., and Yurgelun-Todd D.A. Hippocampal volume in primary unipolar major depression: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol. Psychiatry 47 (2000) 1087-1090
126. Videbech P., Ravnkilde B., Pedersen T.H., Hartvig H., Egander A., Clemmensen K., Rasmussen N.A., Andersen F., Gjedde A., and Rosenberg R. The Danish PET/depression project: clinical symptoms and cerebral blood flow. A regions-of-interest analysis. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 106 (2002) 35-44
127. Vollmert C., Tost H., Brassen S., Jatzko A., and Braus D.F. Depression und moderne Bildgebung. Fortschr. Neurol. Psychiatr. 72 (2004) 435-445
128. Vythilingam M., Charles H.C., Tupler L.A., Blitchington T., Kelly L., and Krishnan K.R. Focal and lateralized subcortical abnormalities in unipolar major depressive disorder: an automated multivoxel proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Biol. Psychiatry 54 (2003) 744-750
129. Vythilingam M., Heim C., Newport J., Miller A.H., Anderson E., Bronen R., Brummer M., Staib L., Vermetten E., Charney D.S., Nemeroff C.B., and Bremner J.D. Childhood trauma associated with smaller hippocampal volume in women with major depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 159 (2002) 2072-2080
130. Vythilingam M., Vermetten E., Anderson G.M., Luckenbaugh D., Anderson E.R., Snow J., Staib L.H., Charney D.S., and Bremner J.D. Hippocampal volume, memory, and cortisol status in major depressive disorder: effects of treatment. Biol. Psychiatry 56 (2004) 101-112
131. Wang Z.J., and Zimmerman R.A. Proton MR spectroscopy of pediatric brain metabolic disorders. Neuroimaging Clin. N Am. 8 (1998) 781-807
132. Watkins P.C., Martin C.K., and Stern L.D. Unconscious memory bias in depression: perceptual and conceptual processes. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 109 (2000) 282-289
133. Watkins P.C., Vache K., Verney S.P., Muller S., and Mathews A. Unconscious mood-congruent memory bias in depression. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 105 (1996) 34-41
134. Weisbrod M., Trage J., Hill H., Sattler H.-D., Maier S., Kiefer M., Grothe J., and Spitzer M. Emotional priming in depressive patients. Ger. J. Psychiatry 2 (1999) 19-47
135. Willner P. Cognitive functioning in depression: a review of theory and research. Psychol. Med. 14 (1984) 807-823
136. Yang T.T., Menon V., Eliez S., Blasey C., White C.D., Reid A.J., Gotlib I.H., and Reiss A.L. Amygdalar activation associated with positive and negative facial expressions. Neuroreport 13 (2002) 1737-1741