Brain work and brain imaging

Annual Review of Neuroscience

Volumn 29, Issue , 2006, Pages 449-476

  Raichle, Marcus E ^a   Mintun, Mark A ^a  

^a WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Activation; Astrocytes; Baseline; Blood flow; Glycolysis; Intrinsic activity; Oxidative phosphorylation

Indexed keywords

GLYCOGEN; LACTIC ACID; NEUROTRANSMITTER; OXYGEN;

ALKALINIZATION; ASTROCYTE; BLOOD FLOW; BRAIN FUNCTION; BRAIN METABOLISM; CELL ACTIVITY; CYTOLOGY; ENERGY CONSUMPTION; GLYCOLYSIS; HUMAN; NERVE CELL; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SPIKE WAVE; ANIMAL; BLOOD; BRAIN; BRAIN MAPPING; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; ENERGY METABOLISM; PHYSIOLOGY; SCINTISCANNING; VASCULARIZATION;

ANIMALS; ASTROCYTES; BRAIN; BRAIN MAPPING; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; ENERGY METABOLISM; HUMANS; NEURONS; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; OXYGEN;

EID: 33748361335     PISSN: 0147006X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.112819     Document Type: Review

References (167)

1. Ackerman RF, Finch DM, Babb TL, Engel JJ. 1984. Increased glucose utilization during long-duration recurrent inhibition of hippocampal pyramidal cells. J. Neurosci. 4:251-64
2. Aguirre CK, Detre JA, Zarahn E, Alsop DC. 2002. Experimental design and the relative sensitivity of BOLD and perfusion MRI. NeuroImage 15:488-500
3. Amedi A, Malach R, Pascual-Leone A. 2005. Negative BOLD differentiates visual imagery and perception. Neuron 48:859-72
4. Ames AI. 2000. CNS energy metabolism as related to function. Brain Res. Rev. 34:42-68
5. Andreasen NC, O'Leary DS, Cizadlo T, Arndt S, Rezai K, et al. 1995. Remembering the past: Two facets of episodic memory explored with positron emission tomography. Am. J. Psychiatry 152:1576-85
6. Arieli A, Sterkin A, Grinvald A, Aertsent A. 1996. Dynamics of ongoing activity: explanation of the large variability in evoked cortical responses. Science 273:1868-71
7. Aston-Jones G, Cohen JD. 2005. An integrative theory of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine function: adaptive gain and optimal performance. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 28:403-50
8. Attwell D, Laughlin SB. 2001. An energy budget for signaling in the grey matter of the brain. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 21:1133-45
9. Aubert A, Costalat R, Magistretti PJ, Pellerin L. 2005. Brain lactate kinetids: modeling evidence for neuronal lactate uptake upon activation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:16448-53
10. Bandettini PA, Kwong KK, Davis TL, Tootell RBH, Wong EC, et al. 1997. Characterization of cerebral blood oxygenation and flow changes during prolonged brain activation. Hum. Brain Mapp. 5:93-109
11. Bandettini PA, Wong EC, Hinks RS, TIkofsky RS, Hyde JS. 1992. Time course EPI of human brain function during task activation. Magn. Reson. Med. 25:390-97
12. Batini C, Benedetti F, Buisseret-Delmas C, Montarolo PG, Strata P. 1984. Metabolic activity of intracerebellar nuclei in the rat: effects of inferior olive inactivation. Exp. Brain Res. 54:259-65
13. Binder JR, Frost JA, Hammeke TA, Bellgowan PSF, Rao SM, Cox RW. 1999. Conceptual processing during the conscious resting state: a functional MRI study. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 11:80-93
14. Binzegger T, Douglas RJ, Martin KAC. 2004. A quantitative map of the circuit of cat primary visual cortex. J. Neurosci. 24:8441-53
15. 14C]Deoxyglucose uptake of the rat visual centres under monocular optokinetic stimulation. Behav. Brain Res. 11:271-75
16. Biswal B, Yetkin F, Haughton V, Hyde J. 1995. Functional connectivity in the motor cortex of resting human brain using echo-planar MRI. Magn. Reson. Med. 34:537-41
17. Blomqvist G, Seitz RJ, Sjogren I, Halldin C, Stone-Elander S, et al. 1994. Regional cerebral oxidative and total glucose consumption during rest and activation studied with positron emission tomography. Acta Physiol. Scand. 151:29-43
18. Boynton GM, Engel SA, Glover GH, Heeger DJ. 1996. Linear systems analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging in human V1. J. Neurosci. 16:4207-21
19. Brodersen P, Paulson OB, Bolwig TG, Rogon ZE, Rafaelsen OJ, Lassen N. 1973. Cerebral hyperemia in electrially induced epileptic seizures. Arch. Neurol. 28:334-38
20. Brown AM. 2004. Brain glycogen re-awakened. J. Neurochem. 89:537-52
21. Bruns A, Eckhorn R, Jokeit H, Ebner A. 2000. Amplitude envelope correlation detects coupling among incoherent brain signals. Neuroreport 11:1509-14
22. Buxton RB. 2001. The elusive initial dip. Neuroimage 13:953-58
23. Buxton RB, Uludag K, Dubowitz DJ, Liu TT. 2004. Modeling the hemodynamic response to brain activation. Neuroimage 23:S220-33
24. Buzsaki G, Draguhn A. 2004. Neuronal oscillations in cortical networks. Science 304:1926-29
25. Cacioppo JT, Berntson GG, Adolphs R, Carter CS, Davidson RJ, et al., eds. 2002. Foundations in Social Neuroscience. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
26. Cacioppo JT, Visser PS, Pickett CL, eds. 2005. Social Neuroscience: People Thinking About Thinking People. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
27. +-ATPase in procine vascular smooth muscle. J. Physiol. 447:67-82
28. Chatton JY, Pellerin L, Magistretti PJ. 2003. GABA uptake into astrocytes is not associated with significant metabolic cost: implications for brain imaging of inhibitory transmission. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100:12456-61
29. Chesler M, Kraig RP. 1987. Intracellular pH of astrocytes increases rapidly with cortical stimulation. Am. J. Psychol. 253:R666-70
30. Chih CP, Roberts ELJ. 2003. Energy substrates for neurons during neural activity: a critical review of the astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle hypothesis. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 23:1263-81
31. Clark DD, Sokoloff L. 1999. Circulation and energy metabolism of the brain. In Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects, ed. GJ Siegel, BW Agranoff, RW Albers, SK Fisher, MD Uhler, pp. 637-70. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven
32. Cohen LB, De Weer P. 1977. Structural and metabolic processes directly related to action potential propagation. In Handbook of Physiology: The Nervous System, ed. JM Brookhart, VB Mountcastle, pp. 137-59. Bethesda, MD: Am. Physiol. Soc.
33. Cooper R, Crow HJ. 1975. Changes in cerebral oxygenation during motor and mental tasks. In Brain Work: The Coupling of Function, Metabolism and Blood Flow in the Brain, ed. DH Ingvar, NA Lassen, pp. 389-92. Copenhagen: Munksgaard
34. Detre JA, Wang J. 2002. Technical aspects and utility of fMRI using BOLD and ASL. Clin. Neurophysiol. 113:621-34
35. Drevets WC, Burton H, Videen TO, Snyder AZ, Simpson JRJ, Raichle ME. 1995. Blood flow changes inhuman somatosensory cortex during anticipated stimulation. Nature 373:249-52
36. Erecinska M, Silver IA. 1994. Ions and energy in mammalian brain. Prog. Neuorobiol. 43:37-71
37. Fan J, Fossella J, Sommer T, Wu Y, Posner MI. 2003. Mapping the genetic variation of executive attention onto brain activity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100:7406-11
38. Fiser J, Chiu C, Weliky M. 2004. Small modulation of ongoing cortical dynamics by sensory input during natural vision. Nature 431:573-78
39. Fox MD, Snyder AZ, Vincent JL, Corbetta M, Van Essen DC, Raichle ME. 2005. The human brain is intrinsically organized into dynamic anticorrelated functional networks. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:9673-78
40. Fox PT, Burton H, Raichle ME. 1987. Mapping human somatosensory cortex with positron emission tomography. J. Neurosurg. 67:34-43
41. Fox PT, Raichle ME. 1986. Focal physiological uncoupling of cerebral blood flow and oxidative metabolism during somatosensory stimulation in human subjects. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83:1140-44
42. Fox PT, Raichle ME, Mintun MA, Dence C. 1988. Nonoxidative glucose consumption during focal physiologic neural activity. Science 241:462-64
43. Frahm J, Kruger G, Merboldt KD, Kleinschmidt A. 1996. Dynamic uncoupling and recoupling of perfusion and oxidative metabolism during focal brain activation in man. Magn. Reson. Med. 35:143-48
44. Friston KJ, Frith CD, Liddle PF, Dolan RJ, Lammertsma AA, Frackowiak RSJ. 1990. The relationship between global and local changes in PET scans. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 10:458-66
45. Fujita H, Kuwahara H, Reutens O, Gjedde A. 1999. Oxygen consumption of cerebral cortex fails to increase during continued vibrotactile stimulation. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 19:266-71
46. Gazzaniga M, ed. 2004. The Cognitive Neurosciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
47. Ghatan PH, Hsieh JC, Petersson KM, Stone-Elander S, Ingvar M. 1998. Coexistence of attention-based facilitation and inhibition in human cortex. Neuroimage 7:23-29
48. Gibbs EL, Lennox WG, Nims LF, Gibbs FZ. 1942. Arterial and venous cerebral blood arterial-venous differences in man. J. Biol. Chem. 18:325-32
49. Gusnard DA, Raichle ME. 2001. Searching for a baseline: functional imaging and the resting human brain. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2:685-94
50. Harik SI, Busto R, Martinez E. 1982. Norepinephrine regulation of cerebral glycogen utilization during seizures and ischemia. J. Neurosci. 2:409-14
51. Harik SI, LaManna JC, Light AI, Rosenthal M. 1979. Cerebral norepinephrine: influence on cortical oxidative metabolism in situ. Science 206:69-71
52. Hershey T, Revilla FJ, Wernle AR, McGee-Minnich L, Antenor JV, et al. 2003. Cortical and subcortical blood flow effects of subthalamic nucleus stimulation in PD. Neurology 61:816-21
53. Hounsfield GN. 1973. Computerized transverse axial scanning (tomography). Part I. Description of system. Br. J. Radiol. 46:1016-22
54. Howse DC, Plum F, Duffy TE, Salford LG. 1973. Cerebral energy metabolism and the regulation of cerebral blood flow. Trans. Am. Neurol. Assoc. 98:153-55
55. Iadecola C. 2004. Neurovascular regulation in the normal brain and in Alzheimer's disease. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 5:347-60
56. Ido Y, Chang K, Williamson JR. 2004. NADH augments blood flow in physiologically activated retina and visual cortex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101:653-58
57. Ido Y, Chang K, Woolsey T, Williamson JR. 2001. NADH: sensor of blood flow need in brain, muscle and other tissues. FASEB J. 15:1419-21
58. Illes J, Kirschen MP, Gabrieli JDE. 2003. From neuroimaging to neuroethics. Nat. Neurosci. 6:205
59. Kasischke KA, Vishwasrao HD, Fisher PJ, Zipfel WR, Webb WW. 2004. Neural activity triggers neuronal oxidative metabolism followed by astrocytic glycolysis. Science 305:99-103
60. Kawashima R, O'Sullivan BT, Roland PE. 1995. Positron-emission tomography studies of cross-modality inhibition in selective attentional tasks: closing the "mind's eye". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:5969-72
61. Kenet T, Bibitchkov D, Tsodyks M, Grinvald A, Arieli A. 2003. Spontaneously emerging cortical representations of visual attributes. Nature 425:954-56
62. Kevles BH. 1997. Naked To The Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press. 378 pp.
63. Kim DS, Duong TQ, Kim SG. 2000. High-resolution mapping of iso-orientation columns by fMROI. Nat. Neurosci. 3:164-69
64. 2 from CBF and BOLD changes: significant increase in oxygen consumption rate during visual stimulation. Magn. Reson. Med. 41:1152-61
65. Kwong KK, Belliveau JW, Chesler DA, Goldberg IE, Weiskoff RM, et al. 1992. Dynamic magnetic resonance imaging of human brain activity during primary sensory stimulation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:5675-79
66. Laschet J, Minier F, Kurcewicz I, Bureau MH, Trottier S, et al. 2004. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase is a GABA receptor kinase linking glycolysis to neuronal inhibition. J. Neurosci. 24:7614-22
67. Lassen NA, Ingvar DH, Skinhoj E. 1978. Brain function and blood flow. Sci. Am. 239:62-71
68. Lauritzen M. 2001. Relationship of spikes, synaptic activity and local changes of cerebral blood flow. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 21:1367-83
69. Lauritzen M. 2005. Reading vascular changes in brain imaging: Is dendritic calcium the key? Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6:77-86
70. Lennie P. 2003. The cost of cortical computation. Curr. Biol. 13:493-97
71. Lennox WG. 1931. The cerebral circulation. XV. Effect of mental work. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 26:725-30
72. Leopold DA, Murayama Y, Logothetis NK. 2003. Very slow activity fluctuations in monkey visual cortex: implications for functional brain imaging. Cereb. Cortex 13:423-33
73. 3H]-2-deoxyglucose. Neuroendocrinology 35:104-10
74. Llinas R. 1988. The intrinsic electrophysiological properties of mammalian neurons: insights into central nervous system function. Science 242:1654-64
75. Logothetis NK. 2000. Can current fMRI techniques reveal the micro-architecture of the cortex? Nat. Neurosci. 3:413-14
76. Logothetis NK. 2003. The underpinnings of the BOLD functional magnetic resonance imaging signal. J. Neurosci. 23:3963-71
77. Logothetis NK, Pauls J, Augath M, Trinath T, Oeltermann A. 2001. Neurophysiological investigation of the basis of the fMRI signal. Nature 412:150-57
78. Logothetis NK, Wandell BA. 2004. Interpreting the BOLD signal. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 66:735-69
79. Madsen PL, Hasselbalch SG, Hagemann LP, Olsen KS, Bulow J, et al. 1995. Persistent resetting of the cerebral oxygen/glucose uptake ratio by brain activation: evidence obtained with the Kety-Schmidt technique. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 15:485-91
80. + dynamics and ATP hydrolysis in astrocytes. J. Neural Trans. 112:77-85
81. Magistretti PJ, Morrison JH, Shoemaker WJ, Sapin V, Bloom FE. 1981. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide induces glycogenolysis in mouse cortical slices: a possible regulatory mechanism for the local control of energy metabolism. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78:6535-39
82. Magistretti PJ, Pellerin L, Martin JL. 1995. Brain energy metabolism: an integrated cellular perspective. In Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress, ed. FE Bloom, DJ Kupfer, pp. 657-69. New York: Raven Press
83. Magistretti PJ, Pellerin L, Rothman DL, Shulman RG. 1999. Energy on demand. Science 283:496-97
84. Martin A. 1999. Automatic activation of the medial temporal lobe during encoding: lateralized influences of meaning and novelty. Hippocampus 9:62-70
85. Martin WR, Powers WJ, Raichle ME. 1987. Cerebral blood volume measured with inhaled C15O and positron emission tomography. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 7:421-26
86. Mata M, Fink DJ, Gainer H, Smith CB, Davidsen L, et al. 1980. Activity-dependent energy metabolism in rat posterior pituitary primarily reflects sodium pump activity. J. Neurochem. 34:213-15
87. Mazoyer B, Zago L, Mellet E, Bricogne S, Etard O, et al. 2001. Cortical networks for working memory and executive functions sustain the conscious resting state in man. Brain Res. Bull. 54:287-98
88. McCasland JS, Hibbard LS. 1997. GABAergic neurons in barrel cortex show strong, whisker-dependent metabolic activation during normal behavior. J. Neurosci. 17:5509-27
89. McGilvery RW, Goldstein GW. 1983. Biochemistry: A Functional Approach. Philadelphia: Saunders
90. Mercer RW, Dunham PB. 1981. Membrane-bound ATP fuels the Na/K pump. Studies of membrane-bound glycolytic enzymes on inside-out vesicles from human red cell membranes. J. Gen. Physiol. 78:547-68
91. Mintun MA, Lundstrom BN, Snyder AZ, Vlassenko AG, Shulman GL, Raichle ME. 2001. Blood flow and oxygen delivery to human brain during functional activity: theoretical modeling and experimental data. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:6859-64
92. Mintun MA, Raichle ME, Martin WR, Herscovitch P. 1984. Brain oxygen utilization measured with O-15 radiotracers and positron emission tomography. J. Nucl. Med. 25:177-87
93. Mintun M, Shulman GL, Snyder AZ, Raichle ME. 2000. Cerebral blood flow during regional activation is not regulated to maintain oxygen delivery. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 26:1729
94. Mintun M, Vlassenko AG, Rundle MM, Raichle ME. 2004. Increased lactate/pyruvate ratio augments blood flow in physiologically activated human brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101:659-64
95. Mintun M, Vlassenko AG, Shulman GI, Snyder AZ. 2002. Time-related increase of oxygen utilization in continuously activated human visual cortex. Neuroimage 16:531-37
96. Mosso A. 1881. Ueber den Kreislauf des Blutes im Menschlichen Gehirn. Leipzig: Verlag von Veit & Co.
97. Mukamel R, Gelbard H, Arieli A, Hasson U, Fried I, Malach R. 2005. Coupling between neuronal firing, field potentials, and fMRI in human auditory cortex. Science 309:951-54
98. Mulligan SJ, MacVicar BA. 2004. Calcium transients in astrocyte endfeet cause cerebrovascular constrictions. Nature 431:195-99
99. Nichols MJ, Newsome WT. 1999. The neurobiology of cognition. Nature 402:C35-38
100. Offenhauser N, Thomsen K, Caesar K, Lauritzen M. 2005. Activity-induced tissue oxygenation changes in rat cerebellar cortex: interplay of postsynaptic activation and blood flow. J. Physiol. 565:279-94
101. Ogawa S, Lee TM, Kay AR, Tank DW. 1990. Brain magnetic resonance imaging with contrast dependent on blood oxygenation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:9868-72
102. Ogawa S, Tank DW, Menon R, Ellermann JM, Kim SG, et al. 1992. Intrinsic signal changes accompanying sensory stimulation: functional brain mapping with magnetic resonance imaging. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:5951-55
103. Okamoto K, Wang W, Rounds J, Chambers EA, Jacobs DO. 2001. ATP from glycolysis is required for normal sodium homeostasis in resting fast-twitch rodent skeletal muscle. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 281:E479-88
104. Olshausen BA, Field DJ. 2005. How close are we to understanding V1? Neural Comput. 17:1665-99
105. Patel AB, de Graaf RA, Mason GF, Rothman DL, Shulman RG, Behar KL. 2005. The contribution of GABA to glutamate/glutamine cycling and energy metabolism in the rat cortex in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:5588-93
106. Pauling L, Coryell CD. 1936. The magnetic properties and structure of hemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin and carbonmonoxyhemoglobin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 22:210-16
107. Pellerin L, Magistretti PJ. 2003. Food for thought: challenging the dogmas. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 23:1282-86
108. Pellerin L, Magistretti PJ. 2004. Let there be (NADH) light. Science 305:50-52
109. Pessoa L, Kastner S, Ungerleider LG. 2003. Neuroimaging studies of attention: from modulation of sensory processing to top-down control. J. Neurosci. 23:3990-98
110. Peters A, Payne BR. 1993. Numerical relationships between geniculocortical afferents and pyramidal cell modules in cat primary visual cortex. Cereb. Cortex 3:69-78
111. Peters A, Payne BR, Budd J. 1994. A numerical analysis of the geniculocortical input to striate cortex in the monkey. Cereb. Cortex 4:215-29
112. Pezawas L, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Drabant EM, Verchinski BA, Munoz KE, et al. 2005. 5-HTTLPR polymorphism impacts human cingulate-amygdala interactions: a genetic susceptibility mechanism for depression. 8:828-34
113. Plum F, Duffy TE. 1975. The couple between cerebral metabolism and blood flow during seizures. In Brain Work: The Coupling of Function, Metabolism and Blood Flow in the Brain, ed. DH Ingvar, NA Lassen, pp. 197-214. Copenhagen: Munksgaard
114. Plum F, Posner JB, Troy B. 1968. Cerebral metabolic and circulatory responses to induced convulsions in animals. Arch. Neurol. 18:1-13
115. Porras OH, Loaiza A, Barros LF. 2004. Glutamate mediates acute glucose transport inhibition in hippocampal neurons. J. Neurosci. 24:9669-73
116. Powers WJ, Hirsch IB, Cryer PE. 1996. Effect of stepped hypoglycemia on regional cerebral blood flow response to physiological brain activation. Am. J. Physiol. 270:H554-59
117. Prichard JW, Rothman DL, Novotny E, Hanstock CC, Shulman RG. 1991. Lactate rise detected by 1H NMR in human visual cortex during physiological stimulation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:5829-31
118. Raichle ME. 1987. Circulatory and metabolic correlates of brain function in normal humans. In Handbook of Physiology: The Nervous System, V. Higher Functions of the Brain, ed. F Plum, pp. 643-74. Bethesda: Am. Physiol. Soc.
119. Raichle ME. 1998. Behind the scenes of functional brain imaging: a historical and physiological perspective. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:765-72
120. Raichle ME. 2000. A brief history of human functional brain mapping. In Brain Mapping: The Systems, ed. AW Toga, JC Mazziotta, pp. 33-75. San Diego: Academic
121. Raichle ME. 2003a. Functional brain imaging and human brain function. J. Neurosci. 23:3959-62
122. Raichle ME. 2003b. Images of body and brain. In A Century of Nature: Twenty-One Discoveries That Changed Science and the World, ed. L Garwin, T Lincoln, pp. 189-95. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
123. Raichle ME, MacLeod AM, Snyder AZ, Powers WJ, Gusnard DA, Shulman GL. 2001. A default mode of brain function. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:676-82
124. Raichle ME, Martin WR, Herscovitch P, Mintun MA, Markham J. 1983. Brain blood flow measured with intravenous H2(15)O. II. Implementation and validation. J. Nucl. Med. 24:790-98
125. Raichle ME, Posner JB, Plum F. 1970. Cerebral blood flow during and after hyperventilation. Arch. Neurol. 23:394-403
126. Ritchie JM. 1967. The oxygen consumption of mammalian non-myelinated nerve fibres at rest and during activity. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 188:309-29
127. Roland PE, Eriksson L, Stone-Elander S, Widen L. 1987. Does mental activity change the oxidative metabolism of the brain. J. Neurosci. 7:2373-89
128. Roland PE, Eriksson L, Widen L, Stone-Elander S. 1989. Changes in regional cerebral oxidative metabolism induced by tactile learning and recognition in man. Eur. J. Neurosci. 1:3-17
129. Schwartz WJ, Smith CB, Davidsen L, Savaki H, Sokoloff L, et al. 1979. Metabolic mapping of functional activity in the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system of the rat. Science 205:723-25
130. Sharp FR. 1976. Relative cerebral glucose uptake of neuronal perikarya and neuropil determined with 2-deoxyglucose in resting and swimming rat. Brain Res. 110:127-39
131. Sherrington C. 1906. The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. 413 pp.
132. Shimojyo S, Scheinberg P, Kogure K, Reinmuth OM. 1968. The effect of graded hypoxia upon transient cerebral blood flow and oxygen consumption. Neurology 18:127-33
133. Shmuel A, Yacoub E, Pfeuffer J, Van de Moortele PF, Adriany G, et al. 2002. Sustained negative BOLD, blood flow and oxygen consumption response and its coupling to the positive response in the human brain. Neuron 36:1195-210
134. Shulman GL, Fiez JA, Corbetta M, Buckner RL, Miezin FM, et al. 1997. Common blood flow changes across visual tasks. II. Decreases in cerebral cortex. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 9:648-63
135. Shulman RG, Hyder F, Rothman DL. 2001. Cerebral energetics and the glycogen shunt: neurochemical basis of functional imaging. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:6417-22
136. Shulman RG, Rothman DL, Behar KL, Hyder F. 2004. Energetic basis of brain activity: implications for neuroimaging. Trends Neurosci. 27:489-95
137. 13C NMR measurements of cerebral glutamate synthesis as evidence for glutamate-glutamine cycling. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:2699-704
138. Sibson NR, Dhankhar A, Mason GF, Rothman DL, Behar KL, Shulman RG. 1998. Stoichiometric coupling of brain glucose metabolism and glutamatergic neuronal activity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:316-21
139. Siesjo BK. 1978. Brain Energy Metabolism. New York: Wiley & Sons
140. Sillito A, Jones HE. 2002. Corticothalamic interactions in the transfer of visual information. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 357:1739-52
141. Silver IA, Deas J, Erecinska M. 1997. Ion homeostasis in brain cells: differences in intracellular ion responses to energy limitation between cultured neurons and glial cells. Neuroscience 78:589-601
142. Simpson JRJ, Ongur D, Akbudak E, Conturo TE, Ollinger JM, et al. 2000. The emotional modulation of cognitive processing: an fMRI study. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 12(Suppl. 2):157-70
143. Smith AJ, Blumenfeld H, Behar KL, Rothman DL, Shulman RGFH. 2002. Cerebral energetics and spiking rate: the neurophysiological basis of fMRI. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:10765-70
144. Sokoloff L, Mangold R, Wechsler R, Kennedy C, Kety SS. 1955. The effect of mental arithmetic on cerebral circulation and metabolism. J. Clin. Invest. 34:1101-8
145. 14C] deoxyglucose method for the measurement of local glucose utilization: theory, procedure and normal values in the conscious and anesthetized albino rat. J. Neurochem. 28:897-916
146. Somers DC, Dale AM, Seiffert AE, Tootell RB. 1999. Functional MRI reveals spatially specific attentional modulation in human primary visual cortex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:1663-68
147. Stark CEL, Squire LR. 2001. When zero is not zero: the problem of ambiguous baseline conditions in MRI. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:12760-66
148. Stettler DD, Das A, Bennett J, Gilbert CD. 2002. Lateral connectivity and contextual interactions in macaque primary visual cortex. Neuron 36:739-50
149. Stone EA, Ariano MA. 1989. Are glial cells targets of the central noradrenergic system? A review of the evidence. Brain Res. Rev. 14:297-309
150. Swanson RA, Morton MM, Sagar SM, Sharp FR. 1992. Sensory stimulation induces local cerebral glycogenolysis: demonstration by autoradiography. Neuroscience 51:451-61
151. Takano T, Tian G-F, Peng W, Lou N, Libionka W, et al. 2006. Astrocyte-mediated control of cerebral blood flow. Nat. Neurosci. 9:260-67
152. Thompson JK, Peterson MR, Freeman RD. 2003. Single-neuron activity and tissue oxygenation in cerebral cortex. Science 299:1070-72
153. Thompson JK, Peterson MR, Freeman RD. 2004. High-resolution neurometabolic coupling revealed by focal activation of visual neurons. Nat. Neurosci. 7:919-20
154. Thomsen K, Offenhauser N, Lauritzen M. 2004. Principal neuron spiking: neither necessary nor sufficient for cerebral blood flow in rat cerebellum. J. Physiol. 560:181-89
155. Triantafyllou C, Hoge RD, Krueger G, Wiggins CJ, Potthast A, et al. 2005. Comparison of physiological noise at 1.5 T, 3 T and 7 T and optimization of fMRI acquisition parameters. Neuroimage 26:243-50
156. Triveda B, Danforth WH. 1966. Effect of pH on the kinetics of frog muscle phosphofructokinase. J. Biol. Chem. 241:4110-14
157. Ui M. 1966. A role of phosphofructokinase in pH-dependent regulation of glycolysis. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 124:310-22
158. Van Essen DC, Dickson J, Harwell J, Hanlon D, Anderson CH, Drury HA. 2001. An integrated software system for surface-based analyses of cerebral cortex. J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 41:1359-78
159. Vanzetta I, Grinvald A. 1999. Increased cortical oxidative metabolism due to sensory stimulation: implications for functional brain imaging. Science 286:1555-58
160. + ratio. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103:1964-69
161. Waldvogel D, Van Gelderen P, Muellbacher W, Ziemann U, Immisch I, Hallett M. 2000. The relative metabolic demand of inhibition and excitation. Nature 406:995-98
162. Webb S. 1990. From the Watching of Shadows. New York: Adam Hilger. 350 pp.
163. Weibel ER. 1984. The Pathway for Oxygen. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
164. Williamson JR. 1970. General features of metabolic control as applied to the erythrocyte. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 6:117-36
165. Wong-Riley MT. 1989. Cytochrome oxidase: an endogenous metabolic marker for neuronal activity. Trends Neurosci. 12:94-101
166. Wu K, Aoki C, Elste A, Rogalski-Wilk AA, Siekevitz P. 1997. The synthesis of ATP by glycolytic enzymes in the postsynaptic density and the effect of endogenously generated nitric oxide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:13273-78
167. Zonta M, Angulo MC, Gobbo S, Rosengarten B, Hossmann KA, et al. 2003. Neuron-to-astrocyte signaling is central to the dynamic control of brain microcirculation. Nat. Neurosci. 6:43-50