Soil-transmitted helminth infections: ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm

Lancet

Volumn 367, Issue 9521, 2006, Pages 1521-1532

  Bethony, Jeffrey ^a,d   Brooker, Simon ^b   Albonico, Marco ^c   Geiger, Stefan M ^a,d   Loukas, Alex ^e   Diemert, David ^f   Hotez, Peter J ^a,f  

^a GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND HEALTH SCIENCES   (United States)

^b LONDON SCHOOL OF HYGIENE AND TROPICAL MEDICINE   (United Kingdom)

^c Ivo de Carneri Foundation   (Italy)

^d INSTITUTO OSWALDO CRUZ   (Brazil)

^e QIMR BERGHOFER MEDICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Australia)

^f Albert B Sabin Vaccine Institute   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALBENDAZOLE; ANTHELMINTIC AGENT; ANTICOAGULANT PROTEIN; BENZIMIDAZOLE; HAEMOGLOBINASE; HELMINTH PROTEIN; HOOKWORM PLATELET INHIBITOR; LEVAMISOLE; MACROPHAGE MIGRATION INHIBITION FACTOR; MEBENDAZOLE; NATURAL KILLER CEL BINDING PROTEIN; NEUTROPHIL INHIBITORY FACTOR; NITAZOXANIDE; OXANTEL; PARASITE ANTIGEN; PEPSIN INHIBITOR 3; PHOSPHORYLCHOLINE; PRAZIQUANTEL; PYRANTEL EMBONATE; SECRETORY PROTEIN; TRIBENDIMIDINE; TT 47; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VACCINE;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; ANCYLOSTOMA; ANCYLOSTOMA CANINUM; ANEMIA; ASCARIASIS; ASCARIS; ASTHMA; BONE MARROW TOXICITY; CAUSE OF DEATH; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; CHILD HEALTH CARE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS; DEVELOPED COUNTRY; DIARRHEA; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; DIZZINESS; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG COST; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG SAFETY; ENDEMIC DISEASE; EXPIRATION DATE; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; GIARDIASIS; HEADACHE; HELMINTH; HELMINTHIASIS; HOOKWORM; HOOKWORM INFECTION; HOST PARASITE INTERACTION; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENT; INTESTINE PARASITE; LARVA; LIVER TOXICITY; MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE DOSE; MORBIDITY; NAUSEA; NONHUMAN; PARASITOSIS; PATENT; PATIENT EDUCATION; PHYSICAL DISEASE; PNEUMONIA; POVERTY; PREVENTIVE MEDICINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SKIN DISEASE; SOIL MICROFLORA; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; TRICHURIASIS; TRICHURIS; WORM EXPULSION;

EID: 33646180655     PISSN: 01406736     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68653-4     Document Type: Review

References (132)

1. WHO. Deworming for health and development. Report of the third global meeting of the partners for parasite control (2005), World Health Organization, Geneva
2. Chan M. The global burden of intestinal nematode infections: fifty years on. Parasitol Today 13 (1997) 438-443
3. Bleakley H. Disease and development: evidence from hookworm eradication in American South. J European Econ Assoc 1 (2003) 376-386
4. Miguel E., and Kremer M. Worms: identifying impacts on education and health in the presence of treatment externalities. Econometrica 72 (2003) 159-217
5. Fincham J., Markus M., and Adams V. Could control of soil-transmitted helminthic infection influence the HIV/AIDS pandemic?. Acta Trop 86 (2003) 315-333
6. Le Hesran J., Akiana J., Ndiaye el H., Dia M., Senghor P., and Konate L. Severe malaria attack is associated with high prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides infection among children in rural Senegal. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 98 (2004) 397-399
7. Horton J. Global anthelmintic chemotherapy programs: learning from history. Trends Parasitol 19 (2003) 405-499
8. Albonico M., Bickle Q., Ramsan M., Montresor A., Savioli L., and Taylor M. Efficacy of mebendazole and levamisole alone or in combination against intestinal nematode infections after repeated targeted mebendazole treatment in Zanzibar. Bull World Health Organ 81 (2003) 343-352
9. Albonico M., Engels D., and Savioli L. Monitoring drug efficacy and early detection of drug resistance in human soil-transmitted nematodes: a pressing public health agenda for helminth control. Int J Parasitol 34 (2004) 1205-1210
10. Despommier D., Gwadz R., Hotez P., and Knirsch C. Parasitic diseases. 5th edn. (2005), Apple Tree Production, New York
11. Crompton D. Ascaris and ascariasis. Adv Parasitol 48 (2001) 285-375
12. Faust E., and Russell P. Craig and Faust's clinical parasitology (1964), Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia
13. Hotez P., Brooker S., Bethony J., Bottazzi M., Loukas A., and Xiao S. Hookworm infection. N Engl J Med 351 (2004) 799-807
14. de Silva N., Brooker S., Hotez P., Montresor A., Engels D., and Savioli L. Soil-transmitted helminth infections: updating the global picture. Trends Parasitol 19 (2003) 547-551
15. Brooker S., Clements A., and Bundy D. Global epidemiology, ecology and control of soil-transmitted helminth infections. Adv Parasitol 62 (2006) 223-265
16. Brooker S., and Michael E. The potential of geographical information systems and remote sensing in the epidemiology and control of human helminth infections. Adv Parasitol 47 (2000) 245-288
17. Raso G., Luginbuhl A., Adjoua C., et al. Multiple parasite infections and their relationship to self-reported morbidity in a community of rural Cote d'Ivoire. Int J Epidemiol 33 (2004) 1092-1102
18. Anderson R., and May R. Infectious diseases of humans: dynamics and control (1991), Oxford University Press, Oxford
19. Katz N., Chaves A., and Pellegrino J. A simple device for quantitative stool thick-smear technique in schistosomiasis mansoni. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 14 (1972) 397-400
20. Galvani A. Age-dependent epidemiological patterns and strain diversity in helminth parasites. J Parasitol 91 (2005) 24-30
21. Bethony J., Chen J., Lin S., et al. Emerging patterns of hookworm infection: influence of aging on the intensity of Necator infection in Hainan Province, People's Republic of China. Clin Infect Dis 35 (2002) 1336-1344
22. Anderson R., and May R. Helminth infections of humans: mathematical models, population dynamics, and control. Adv Parasitol 24 (1985) 1-101
23. Chan L., Bundy D., and Kan S. Aggregation and predisposition to Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura at the familial level. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 (1994) 46-48
24. Forrester J., Scott M., Bundy D., and Golden M. Clustering of Ascans lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura infections within households. Trans Roy Soc Trop Med Hyg 82 (1988) 282-288
25. WHO. World health report: annex table 2: deaths by cause, sex, and mortality stratum in WHO regions and annex table 3: burden of disease in DALYs by cause, sex and mortality stratum in WHO regions (2002), World Health Organization, Geneva 186-193
26. WHO. Prevention and control of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis (2004), World Health Organization, Geneva
27. Murray C., and Lopez A. The global burden of disease: a comprehensive assessment of mortality and morbidity from disease, injuries, and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020 (1996), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
28. Chan M., Medley G., Jamison D., and Bundy D. The evaluation of potential global morbidity attributable to intestinal nematode infections. Parasitology 109 (1994) 373-387
29. Bundy D., Chan M., Medley G., Jamison D., and Savioli L. Intestinal nematode infections. In: Murray C., Lopez A., and Mathers C. (Eds). Global epidemiology of infectious disease: Global burden of disease volume IV (2004), World Health Organization, Geneva 243-300. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241592303.pdf (accessed Feb 20, 2006)
30. Bundy DA, Shaeffer S, Jukes M, et al. School-based health and nutrition programs. In: Jamison D, Breman J, Meacham A, et al., eds. Disease control priorities in developing countries, 2nd edn. New York: World Bank, World Health Organization, Fogarty International Center of the National Institutes of Health, US Department of Health and Human Services (in press).
31. Savioli L., Stansfield S., Bundy D., et al. Schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminth infections: forging control efforts. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 96 (2002) 577-579
32. Stoltzfus R., Dreyfuss M., Chwaya H., and Albonico M. Hookworm control as a strategy to prevent iron deficiency. Nutr Rev 55 (1997) 223-232
33. Navitsky R., Dreyfuss M., Shrestha J., Khatry S., Stoltzfus R., and Albonico M. Ancylostoma duodenale is responsible for hookworm infections among pregnant women in the rural plains of Nepal. J Parasitol 84 (1998) 647-651
34. Christian P., Khatry S., and West Jr. K. Antenatal anthelmintic treatment, birthweight, and infant survival in rural Nepal. Lancet 364 (2004) 981-983
35. Crompton D., and Stephenson L. Hookworm infection, nutritional status, and productivity. In: Schad G., and Warren K. (Eds). Hookworm disease: current status and new directions (1990), Taylor and Frances, London 231-264
36. Brooker S., Peshu N., Warn P., et al. The epidemiology of hookworm infection and its contribution to anaemia among pre-school children on the Kenyan coast. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 93 (1999) 240-246
37. Stoltzfus R., Chwaya H., Montresor A., Albonico M., Savioli L., and Tielsch J. Malaria, hookworms and recent fever are related to anemia and iron status indicators in 0- to 5-y old Zanzibari children and these relationships change with age. J Nutr 130 (2000) 1724-1733
38. King C., Dickman K., and Tisch D. Reassessment of the cost of chronic helmintic infection: a meta-analysis of disability-related outcomes in endemic schistosomiasis. Lancet 365 (2005) 1561-1569
39. Maizels R., Holland M., Falcone F., Zang X., and Yazdanbakhsh M. Vaccination against helminth parasites: the ultimate challenge for vaccinologists?. Immunol Rev 171 (1999) 125-147
40. Maizels R., Balic A., Gomez-Escobar N., Nair M., Taylor M., and Allen J. Helminth parasites: masters of regulation. Immunol Rev 201 (2004) 89-116
41. Maizels R., Bundy D., Selkirk M., Smith D., and Anderson R. Immunological modulation and evasion by helminth parasites in human populations. Nature 365 (1993) 797-805
42. Mosmann T., and Coffman R. TH1 and TH2 cells: different patterns of lymphokine secretion lead to different functional properties. Annu Rev Immunol 7 (1989) 145-173
43. Bradley J., and Jackson J. Immunity, immunoregulation and the ecology of trichuriasis and ascariasis. Parasite Immunol 26 (2004) 429-441
44. Finkelman F., Shea-Donohue T., Goldhill J., et al. Cytokine regulation of host defense against parasitic gastrointestinal nematodes: lessons from studies with rodent models. Annu Rev Immunol 15 (1997) 505-533
45. Maizels R., and Balic A. Resistance to helminth infection: the case for interleukin-5-dependent mechanisms. J Infect Dis 190 (2004) 427-429
46. Quinnell R., Pritchard D., Raiko A., Brown A., and Shaw M. Immune responses in human necatoriasis: association between interleukin-5 responses and resistance to reinfection. J Infect Dis 190 (2004) 430-438
47. Jackson J., Turner J., Rentoul L., et al. T helper cell type 2 responsiveness predicts future susceptibility to gastrointestinal nematodes in humans. J Infect Dis 190 (2004) 1804-1811
48. Jackson J., Turner J., Rentoul L., et al. Cytokine response profiles predict species-specific infection patterns in human GI nematodes. Int J Parasitol 34 (2004) 1237-1244
49. Turner J., Faulkner H., Kamgno J., et al. Th2 cytokines are associated with reduced worm burdens in a human intestinal helminth infection. J Infect Dis 188 (2003) 1768-1775
50. Geiger S., Massara C., Bethony J., Soboslay P., Carvalho O., and Correa-Oliveira R. Cellular responses and cytokine profiles in Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura infected patients. Parasite Immunol 24 (2002) 499-509
51. Yazdanbakhsh M., van den Biggelaar A., and Maizels R. Th2 responses without atopy: immunoregulation in chronic helminth infections and reduced allergic disease. Trends Immunol 22 (2001) 372-377
52. Asojo O., Goud G., Dhar K., et al. X-ray structure of Na-ASP-2, a pathogenesis-related-1 protein from the nematode parasite, Necator americanus, and a vaccine antigen for human hookworm infection. J Mol Biol 346 (2005) 801-814
53. Bethony J., Loukas A., Smout M., et al. Antibodies against a secreted protein from hookworm larvae reduce the intensity of hookworm infection in humans and vaccinated laboratory animals. FASEB J 19 (2005) 1743-1745
54. Hawdon J., Narasimhan S., and Hotez P. Ancylostoma secreted protein 2: cloning and characterization of a second member of a family of nematode secreted proteins from Ancylostoma caninum. Mol Biochem Parasitol 99 (1999) 149-165
55. Moyle M., Foster D., McGrath D., et al. A hookworm glycoprotein that inhibits neutrophil function is a ligand of the integrin CD11b/CD18. J Biol Chem 269 (1994) 10008-10015
56. Jiang N., Chopp M., and Chahwala S. Neutrophil inhibitory factor treatment of focal cerebral ischemia in the rat. Brain Res 788 (1998) 25-34
57. Hsieh G., Loukas A., Wahl A., et al. A secreted protein from the human hookworm Necator americanus binds selectively to NK cells and induces IFN-γ production. J Immunol 173 (2004) 2699-2704
58. Williamson A., Lecchi P., Turk B., et al. A multi-enzyme cascade of hemoglobin proteolysis in the intestine of blood-feeding hookworms. J Biol Chem 279 (2004) 35950-35957
59. Loukas A., Bethony J., Williamson A., et al. Vaccination of dogs with a recombinant cysteine protease from the intestine of canine hookworms diminishes the fecundity and growth of worms. J Infect Dis 189 (2004) 1952-1961
60. Loukas A., Bethony J., Mendez S., et al. Vaccination with recombinant aspartic hemoglobinase reduces parasite load and protects against anemia after challenge infection with blood-feeding hookworms. PLoS Med 2 (2005) e295
61. Del Valle A., Jones B., Harrison L., Chadderdon R., and Cappello M. Isolation and molecular cloning of a secreted hookworm platelet inhibitor from adult Ancylostoma caninum. Mol Biochem Parasitol 129 (2003) 167-177
62. Chadderdon R., and Cappello M. The hookworm platelet inhibitor: functional blockade of integrins GPIIb/IIIa (αIIbβ3) and GPIa/IIa (α2β) inhibits platelet aggregation and adhesion in vitro. J Infect Dis 179 (1999) 1235-1241
63. Cappello M., Vlasuk G., Bergum P., Huang S., and Hotez P. Ancylostoma caninum anticoagulant peptide: a hookworm-derived inhibitor of human coagulation factor Xa. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92 (1995) 6152-6156
64. Hotez P., Ashcom J., Bin Z., et al. Effect of vaccinations with recombinant fusion proteins on Ancylostoma caninum habitat selection in the canine intestine. J Parasitol 88 (2002) 684-690
65. Stassens P., Bergum P., Gansemans Y., et al. Anticoagulant repertoire of the hookworm Ancylostoma caninum. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93 (1996) 2149-2154
66. Culley F., Brown A., Conroy D., Sabroe I., Pritchard D., and Williams T. Eotaxin is specifically cleaved by hookworm metalloproteases preventing its action in vitro and in vivo. J Immunol 165 (2000) 6447-6453
67. Don T., Jones M., Smyth D., O'Donoghue P., Hotez P., and Loukas A. A pore-forming haemolysin from the hookworm, Ancylostoma caninum. Int J Parasitol 34 (2004) 1029-1035
68. Ng K., Petersen J., Cherney M., et al. Structural bas is for the inhibition of porcine pepsin by Ascaris pepsin inhibitor-3. Nat Struct Biol 7 (2000) 653-657
69. Deehan M., Goodridge H., Blair D., et al. Immunomodulatory properties of Ascaris suum glycosphingolipids: phosphorylcholine and non-phosphorylcholine-dependent effects. Parasite Immunol 24 (2002) 463-469
70. Drake L., Korchev Y., Bashford L., et al. The major secreted product of the whipworm, Trichuris, is a pore-forming protein. Proc Biol Sci 257 (1994) 255-261
71. Parthasarathy G., and Mansfield L. Trichuris suis excretory secretory products (ESP) elicit interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-10 secretion from intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-1). Vet Parasitol 131 (2005) 317-324
72. Summers R., Elliott D., Urban Jr. J., Thompson R., and Weinstock J. Trichuris suis therapy in Crohn's disease. Gut 54 (2005) 87-90
73. Tan T., Edgerton S., Kumari R., et al. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor of the parasitic nematode Trichinella spiralis. Biochem J 357 (2001) 373-383
74. van Balkom B., van Gestel R., Brouwers J., et al. Mass spectrometric analysis of the Schistosoma mansoni tegumental sub-proteome. J Proteome Res 4 (2005) 958-966
75. Yatsuda A., Krijgsveld J., Cornelissen A., Heck A., and de Vries E. Comprehensive analysis of the secreted proteins of the parasite Haemonchus contortus reveals extensive sequence variation and differential immune recognition. J Biol Chem 278 (2003) 16941-16951
76. Hawdon J., and Hotez P. Hookworm: developmental biology of the infectious process. Curr Opin Genet Dev 6 (1996) 618-623
77. Fujiwara R., Loukas A., Mendez S., et al. Vaccination with irradiated Ancylostoma caninum third stage larvae induces a Th2 protective response in dogs. Vaccine 24 (2006) 501-509
78. Goud G., Bottazzi M., Zhan B., et al. Expression of the Necator americanus hookworm larval antigen Na-ASP-2 in Pichia pastoris and purification of the recombinant protein for use in human clinical trials. Vaccine 23 (2005) 4754-4764
79. Ledizet M., Harrison L., Koskia R., and Cappello M. Discovery and pre-clinical development of antithrombotics from hematophagous invertebrates. Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents 3 (2005) 1-10
80. Delaney A., Williamson A., Brand A., et al. Cloning and characterisation of an aspartyl protease inhibitor (API-1) from Ancylostoma hookworms. Int J Parasitol 35 (2005) 303-313
81. Lochnit G., Dennis R., and Geyer R. Phosphorylcholine substituents in nematodes: structures, occurrence and biological implications. Biol Chem 381 (2000) 839-847
82. Goodridge H., Stepek G., Harnett W., and Harnett M. Signalling mechanisms underlying subversion of the immune response by the filarial nematode secreted product ES-62. Immunology 115 (2005) 296-304
83. Kaplan K., Goodman Z., and Ishak K. Eosinophilic granuloma of the liver: a characteristic lesion with relationship to visceral larva migrans. Am J Surg Pathol 25 (2001) 1316-1321
84. Gelpi A., and Mustafa A. Ascaris pneumonia. Am J Med 44 (1968) 377-389
85. Chan P., Anuar A., Fong M., Debruyne J., and Ibrahim J. Toxocara seroprevalence and childhood asthma among Malaysian children. Pediatr Int 43 (2001) 350-353
86. Sharghi N., Schantz P., Caramico L., Ballas K., Teague B., and Hotez P. Environmental exposure to Toxocara as a possible risk factor for asthma: a clinic-based case-control study. Clin Infect Dis 32 (2001) E111-E116
87. Blackwell V., and Vega-Lopez F. Cutaneous larva migrans: clinical features and management of 44 cases presenting in the returning traveller. Br J Dermatol 145 (2001) 434-437
88. Hotez P. Hookworm infections. In: Guerrant R., Walker D., and Weller P. (Eds). Tropical infections diseases: principles, pathogens and, practice. 2nd edn. (2006), Elsevier-Churchill Livingstone, London 1265-1273
89. Taren D., Nesheim M., Crompton D., et al. Contributions of ascariasis to poor nutritional status in children from Chiriqui Province, Republic of Panama. Parasitology 95 (1987) 603-613
90. Khuroo M., Zargar S., and Mahajan R. Hepatobiliary and pancreatic ascariasis in India. Lancet 335 (1990) 1503-1506
91. Villamizar E., Mendez M., Bonilla E., Varon H., and de Onatra S. Ascaris lumbricoides infestation as a cause of intestinal obstruction in children: experience with 87 cases. J Pediatr Surg 31 (1996) 201-204 discussion 204-05
92. Khuroo M. Ascariasis. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 25 (1996) 553-577
93. Bundy D., and Cooper E. Trichuris and trichuriasis in humans. Advances in Parasitology 28 (1989) 107-173
94. Shin J., Gardiner G., Deitel W., and Kandel G. Does whipworm increase the pathogenicity of Campylobacter jejuni? A clinical correlate of an experimental observation. Can J Gastroenterol 18 (2004) 175-177
95. Maxwell C., Hussain R., Nutman T., et al. The clinical and immunologic responses of normal human volunteers to low dose hookworm (Necator americanus) infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 37 (1987) 126-134
96. Lwambo N., Bundy D., and Medley G. A new approach to morbidity risk assessment in hookworm endemic communities. Epidemiol Infect 108 (1992) 469-481
97. Albonico M., Stoltzfus R., Savioli L., et al. Epidemiological evidence for a differential effect of hookworm species, Ancylostoma duodenale or Necator americanus, on iron status of children. Int J Epidemiol 27 (1998) 530-537
98. Nutman T., Ottesen E., Ieng S., et al. Eosinophilia in Southeast Asian refugees: evaluation at a referral center. J Infect Dis 155 (1987) 309-313
99. Dunn A., and Keymer A. Factors affecting the reliability of the McMaster technique. J Helminthol 60 (1986) 260-262
100. Santos F., Cerqueira E., and Soares N. Comparison of the thick smear and Kato-Katz techniques for diagnosis of intestinal helminth infections. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 38 (2005) 196-198
101. Koumanidou C., Manoli E., Anagnostara A., Polyviou P., and Vakaki M. Sonographic features of intestinal and biliary ascariasis in childhood: case report and review of the literature. Ann Trop Paediatr 24 (2004) 329-335
102. Anonymous. Drugs for parasitic infections. Med Lett Drugs Ther (August, 2004). http://www.themedicalletter.com/restricted/articles/w1189c.pdf (accessed Nov 12, 2005)
103. WHO. Report of the WHO informal consultation on the use of praziquantel during pregnancy/lactation and albendazole/mebendazole in children under 24 months (8-9 April, 2002). http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2003/WHO_CDS_CPE_PVC_2002.4.pdf
104. Lacey E. Mode of action of benzimidazoles. Parasitol Today 6 (1990) 112-115
105. Albonico M., Ramsan M., Wright V., et al. Soil-transmitted nematode infections and mebendazole treatment in Mafia Island schoolchildren. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 96 (2002) 717-726
106. Bennett A., and Guyatt H. Reducing intestinal nematode infection: efficacy of albendazole and mebendazole. Parasitol Today 16 (2000) 71-74
107. Adams V., Lombard C., Dhansay M., Markus M., and Fincham J. Efficacy of albendazole against the whipworm Trichuris trichiura: a randomised, controlled trial. S Afr Med J 94 (2004) 972-976
108. Dayan A. Albendazole, mebendazole and praziquantel. Review of non-clinical toxicity and pharmacokinetics. Acta Trop 86 (2003) 141-159
109. Montresor A., Awasthi S., and Crompton D. Use of benzimidazoles in children younger than 24 months for the treatment of soil-transmitted helminthiasis. Acta Trop 86 (2003) 223-232
110. Bundy D., Michael E., and Guyatt H. Epidemiology and control of nematode infection and disease in humans. In: Lee D. (Ed). The biology of nematodes (2002), Taylor and Francis, London 599-617
111. Stoltzfus R., Dreyfuss M., Chwaya H., and Albonico M. Hookworm control as a strategy to prevent iron deficiency. Nutr Rev 55 (1997) 223-232
112. Stephenson L., Latham M., Kurz K., Kinoti S., and Brigham H. Treatment with a single dose of albendazole improves growth of Kenyan schoolchildren with hookworm, Trichuris trichuria, and Ascaris lumbricoides infections. Am J Trop Med Hyg 41 (1989) 78-87
113. Stephenson L., Latham M., Adams E., Kinoti S., and Pertet A. Physical fitness, growth and appetite of Kenyan school boys with hookworm, Trichuris trichiura and Ascaris lumbricoides infections are improved four months after a single dose of albendazole. J Nutr 123 (1993) 1036-1046
114. Awasthi S., Pande V., and Fletcher R. Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of albendazole in improving nutritional status of pre-school children in urban slums. Indian Pediatr 37 (2000) 19-29
115. Stoltzfus R., Kvalsvig J., Chwaya H., et al. Effects of iron supplementation and anthelmintic treatment on motor and language development of preschool children in Zanzibar: double blind, placebo controlled study. BMJ 323 (2001) 1389-1393
116. Montresor A., Stoltzfus R., Albonico M., et al. Is the exclusion of children under 24 months from anthelmintic treatment justifiable?. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 96 (2002) 197-199
117. Atukorala T., de Silva L., Dechering W., Dassenaeike T., and Perera R. Evaluation of effectiveness of iron-folate supplementation and anthelminthic therapy against anemia in pregnancy - a study in the plantation sector of Sri Lanka. Am J Clin Nutr 60 (1994) 286-292
118. Torlesse H., and Hodges M. Albendazole therapy and reduced decline in haemoglobin concentration during pregnancy (Sierra Leone). Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 (2001) 195-201
119. de Silva N., Sirisena J., Gunasekera D., Ismail M., and de Silva H. Effect of mebendazole therapy during pregnancy on birth outcome. Lancet 353 (1999) 1145-1149
120. Savioli L., Crompton D., and Neira M. Use of anthelminthic drugs during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 188 (2003) 5-6
121. WHO. Report of the WHO informal consultation on hookworm infection and anemia in girls and women (1996), World Health Organization, Geneva
122. Quinnell R., Slater A., Tighe P., Walsh E., Keymer A., and Pritchard D. Reinfection with hookworm after chemotherapy in Papua New Guinea. Parasitology 106 (1993) 379-385
123. Elkins D., Haswell-Elkins M., and Anderson R. The importance of host age and sex to patterns of reinfection with Ascaris lumbricoides following mass anthelmintic treatment in a South Indian fishing community. Parasitology 96 (1988) 171-184
124. Geerts S., Coles G., and Gryseels B. Anthelmintic resistance in human helminths: learning from the problems with worm control in livestock. Parasitol Today 13 (1997) 149-151 discussion 156
125. Savioli L., Montresor A., Bundy D., Albonico M., and Renganathan E. Anthelminthic resistance in human helminths: learning from the problem of worm control in livestock-Reply. Parasitol Today 13 (1997) 156
126. Gilles H., and Hoffman P. Treatment of intestinal parasite infections: a review of nitazoxaanide. Trends Parasitol 18 (2002) 95-97
127. Xiao S., Hui-Ming W., Tanner M., Utzinger J., and Chong W. Tribendimidine: a promising, safe and broad-spectrum anthelmintic agent from China. Acta Trop 94 (2005) 1-14
128. Albonico M., Bickle Q., Haji H., et al. Evalutation of the efficacy of pyrantel-oxantel for the treatment of soil-transmitted nematode infections. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 96 (2002) 685-690
129. Goud G., Zhan B., Ghosh K., et al. Cloning, yeast expression, isolation, and vaccine testing of recombinant Ancylostoma-secreted protein (ASP)-1 and ASP-2 from Ancylostoma ceylanicum. J Infect Dis 189 (2004) 919-929
130. Mendez S., Valenzuela J., Wu W., and Hotez P. Host cytokine production, lymphoproliferation, and antibody responses during the course of Ancylostoma ceylanicum infection in the golden Syrian hamster. Infect Immun 73 (2005) 3402-3407
131. Hotez P., Bethony J., Bottazzi M., Brooker S., and Buss P. Hookworm: "the great infection of mankind". PLoS Med (2005). published online March 29, DOI:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020067
132. Molyneux D., Hotez P., and Fenwick A. "Rapid impact interventions": how a health policy of integrated control of Africa's neglected tropical diseases could benefit the poor. PLoS Med (2005). published online Oct 11. DOI:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020336