Stem cell treatment of the heart: A review of its current status on the brink of clinical experimentation

Texas Heart Institute Journal

Volumn 32, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 479-488

  Angelini, Paolo ^a,c   Markwald, Roger R ^b  

^a ST LUKE S EPISCOPAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA   (United States)

^c NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Bone marrow cells; Cardiomyocytes; Cell aging; Embryology, cardiac; Heart failure, congestive; Myocardial infarction; Regenerative medicine; Stem cell therapy; Stem cells

Indexed keywords

ADOPTIVE IMMUNOTHERAPY; BONE MARROW; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL DIVISION; EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT; EMBRYONIC STEM CELL; HEART; HEART DEVELOPMENT; HEART FUNCTION; HEART INFARCTION; HEART MUSCLE CELL; HEART MUSCLE REVASCULARIZATION; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SENESCENCE; STEM CELL; STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; TISSUE REGENERATION;

ANIMALS; HEART FAILURE, CONGESTIVE; HUMANS; STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION;

EID: 33244487809     PISSN: 07302347     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (125)

1. Dzau VJ. Simon Dack lecture. American College of Cardiology Scientific Session News; 2004.
2. Gregoratos G, Abrams J, Epstein AE, Freedman RA, Hayes DL, Hlatky MA, et al. ACC/AHA/NASPE 2002 guideline update for implantation of cardiac pacemakers and antiarrhythmia devices: summary article. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (ACC/AHA/NASPE Committee to Update the 1998 Pacemaker Guidelines). J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2002;13:1183-99.
3. Rahimtoola SH. The year in valvular heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;43:491-504.
4. Favaloro RG. Landmarks in the development of coronary artery bypass surgery. Circulation 1998;98:466-78.
5. Babapulle MN, Joseph L, Belisle P, Brophy JM, Eisenberg MJ. A hierarchical Bayesian meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials of drug-eluting stents. Lancet 2004;364:583-91.
6. Hunt SA, Frazier OH. Mechanical circulatory support and cardiac transplantation. Circulation 1998;97:2079-90.
7. Mironov V, Visconti RP, Markwald RR. What is regenerative medicine? Emergence of applied stem cell and developmental biology. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2004;4:773-81.
8. Asahara T, Murohara T, Sullivan A, Silver M, van der Zee R, Li T, et al. Isolation of putative progenitor endothelial cells for angiogenesis. Science 1997;275:964-7.
9. Hamano K, Nishida M, Hirata K, Mikamo A, Li TS, Harada M, et al. Local implantation of autologous bone marrow cells for therapeutic angiogenesis in patients with ischemic heart disease: clinical trial and preliminary results. Jpn Circ J 2001;65:845-7.
10. Lough J, Sugi Y. Endoderm and heart development. Dev Dyn 2000;217:327-42.
11. Nakamura T, Schneider MD. The way to a human's heart is through the stomach: visceral endoderm-like cells drive human embryonic stem cells to a cardiac fate. Circulation 2003;107:2638-9.
12. Sugi Y, Markwald RR. Endodermal growth factors promote endocardial precursor cell formation from precardiac mesoderm. Dev Biol 2003;263:35-49.
13. Sachinidis A, Fleischmann BK, Kolossov E, Wartenberg M, Sauer H, Hescheler J. Cardiac specific differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells. Cardiovasc Res 2003;58:278-91.
14. Eisenberg LM, Kubalak SW, Eisenberg CA. Stem cells and the formation of the myocardium in the vertebrate embryo. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol 2004;276:2-12.
15. Solloway MJ, Harvey RP. Molecular pathways in myocardial development: a stem cell perspective. Cardiovasc Res 2003;58:264-77.
16. Harvey RP, Rosenthal N, editors. Heart development. San Diego: Academic Press; 1999.
17. Harvey RP. Molecular determinants of cardiac development and congenital disease. In: Rossant J, Tam PP, editors. Mouse development: patterning, morphogenesis and organogenesis. San Diego: Academic Press; 2002. p. 331-70.
18. Behfar A, Zingman LV, Hodgson DM, Rauzier JM, Kane GC, Terzic A, Puceat M. Stem cell differentiation requires a paracrine pathway in the heart. FASEB J 2002;16:1558-66.
19. Barron M, Gao M, Lough J. Requirement for BMP and FGF signaling during cardiogenic induction in non-precardiac mesoderm is specific, transient, and cooperative. Dev Dyn 2000;218:383-93.
20. Mjaatvedt CH, Yamamura H, Wessels A, Ramsdell A, Turner D, Markwald RR. Mechanisms of segmentation, septation, and remodeling of the tubular heart: endocardial cushion fate and cardiac looping. In: Harvey RP, Rosenthal N, editors. Heart development. San Diego: Academic Press; 1999. p. 159-77.
21. Eisenberg LM, Moreno R, Markwald RR. Multiple stem cell populations contribute to the formation of the myocardium. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2005;1047:38-49.
22. Eisenberg LM, Eisenberg CA. Stem cell plasticity, cell fusion, and transdifferentiation. Birth Defects Res C Embryo Today 2003;69:209-18.
23. Orlic D, Kajstura J, Chimenti S, Limana F, Jakoniuk I, Quaini F, et al. Mobilized bone marrow cells repair the infarcted heart, improving function and survival. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001 98:10344-9.
24. Orlic D. Adult stem cells: can they differentiate? Blood 2003;102:4249-50.
25. Kajstura J, Leri A, Finato N, Di Loreto C, Beltrami CA, Anversa P. Myocyte proliferation in end-stage cardiac failure in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998;95:8801-5.
26. Beltrami AP, Urbanek K, Kajstura J, Yan SM, Finato N, Bussani R, et al. Evidence that human cardiac myocytes divide after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1750-7.
27. Anversa P, Kajstura J. Ventricular myocytes are not terminally differentiated in the adult mammalian heart. Circ Res 1998;83:1-14.
28. Chimenti C, Kajstura J, Torella D, Urbanek K, Heleniak H, Colussi C, et al. Senescence and death of primitive cells and myocytes lead to premature cardiac aging and heart failure. Circ Res 2003;93:604-13.
29. Nadal-Ginard B, Kajstura J, Leri A, Anversa P. Myocyte death, growth, and regeneration in cardiac hypertrophy and failure. Circ Res 2003;92:139-50.
30. Anversa P, Nadal-Ginard B. Myocyte renewal and ventricular remodelling. Nature. 2002;415:240-3.
31. Beltrami AP, Barlucchi L, Torella D, Baker M, Limana F, Chimenti S, et al. Adult cardiac stem cells are multipotent and support myocardial regeneration. Cell 2003;114:763-76.
32. Leri A, Kajstura J, Nadal-Ginard B, Anversa P. Some like it plastic. Circ Res 2004;94:132-4.
33. Anversa P, Kajstura J, Nadal-Ginard B, Leri A. Primitive cells and tissue regeneration. Circ Res 2003;92:579-82.
34. Urbanek K, Quaini F, Tasca G, Torella D, Castaldo C, Nadal-Ginard B, et al. Intense myocyte formation from cardiac stem cells in human cardiac hypertrophy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003;100:10440-5.
35. Quaini F, Urbanek K, Beltrami AP, Finato N, Beltrami CA, Nadal-Ginard B, et al. Chimerism of the transplanted heart. N Engl J Med 2002;346:5-15.
36. Glaser R, Lu MM, Narula N, Epstein JA. Smooth muscle cells, but not myocytes, of host origin in transplanted human hearts. Circulation 2002;106:17-9.
37. Laflamme MA, Myerson D, Saffitz JE, Murry CE. Evidence for cardiomyocyte repopulation by extracardiac progenitors in transplanted human hearts. Circ Res 2002;90:634-40.
38. Hocht-Zeisberg E, Kahnert H, Guan K, Wulf G, Hemmerlein B, Schlott T, et al. Cellular repopulation of myocardial infarction in patients with sex-mismatched heart transplantation. Eur Heart J 2004;25:749-58.
39. Kvasnicka HM, Wickenhauser C, Thiele J. Quantifying chimeric cardiomyocytes. Circulation 2003;108:e60.
40. Deb A, Wang S, Skelding KA, Miller D, Simper D, Caplice NM. Bone marrow-derived cardiomyocytes are present in adult human heart: A study of gender-mismatched bone marrow transplantation patients. Circulation 2003;107:1247-9.
41. Hruban RH, Long PP, Perlman EJ, Hutchins GM, Baumgartner WA, Baughman KL, Griffin CA. Fluorescence in situ hybridization for the Y-chromosome can be used to detect cells of recipient origin in allografted hearts following cardiac transplantation. Am J Pathol 1993;142:975-80.
42. Muller P, Pfeiffer P, Koglin J, Schafers HJ, Seeland U, Janzen I, et al. Cardiomyocytes of noncardiac origin in myocardial biopsies of human transplanted hearts. Circulation 2002;106:31-5.
43. Badorff C, Brandes RP, Popp R, Rupp S, Urbich C, Aicher A, et al. Transdifferentiation of blood-derived human adult endothelial progenitor cells into functionally active cardiomyocytes. Circulation 2003;107:1024-32.
44. Laugwitz KL, Moretti A, Lam J, Gruber P, Chen Y, Woodard S, et al. Postnatal isl1+ cardioblasts enter fully differentiated cardiomyocyte lineages. Nature 2005;433:647-53.
45. Terada N, Hamazaki T, Oka M, Hoki M, Mastalerz DM, Nakano Y, et al. Bone marrow cells adopt the phenotype of other cells by spontaneous cell fusion. Nature 2002;416:542-5.
46. Ying QL, Nichols J, Evans EP, Smith AG. Changing potency by spontaneous fusion. Nature 2002;416:545-8.
47. Rudnicki MA. Marrow to muscle, fission versus fusion. Nat Med 2003;9:1461-2.
48. Nygren JM, Jovinge S, Breitbach M, Sawen P, Roll W, Hescheler J, et al. Bone marrow-derived hematopoietic cells generate cardiomyocytes at a low frequency through cell fusion, but not transdifferentiation. Nat Med 2004;10:494-501.
49. Oh H, Bradfute SB, Gallardo TD, Nakamura T, Gaussin V, Mishina Y, et al. Cardiac progenitor cells from adult myocardium: homing, differentiation, and fusion after infarction. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003;100:12313-8.
50. Anversa P, Nadal-Ginard B. Cardiac chimerism: methods matter. Circulation 2002;106:e129-31.
51. Sussman MA, Anversa P. Myocardial aging and senescence: where have the stem cells gone? Annu Rev Physiol 2004;66:29-48.
52. Schwartz RS, Curfman GD. Can the heart repair itself? N Engl J Med 2002;346:2-4.
53. Planat-Benard V, Menard C, Andre M, Puceat M, Perez A, Garcia-Verdugo JM, et al. Spontaneous cardiomyocyte differentiation from adipose tissue stroma cells. Circ Res 2004;94:223-9.
54. Orlic D, Kajstura J, Chimenti S, Jakoniuk I, Anderson SM, Li B, et al. Bone marrow cells regenerate infarcted myocardium. Nature 2001;410:701-5.
55. Jackson KA, Majka SM, Wang H, Pocius J, Hartley CJ, Majesky MW, et al. Regeneration of ischemic cardiac muscle and vascular endothelium by adult stem cells. J Clin Invest 2001;107:1395-402.
56. Malouf NN, Coleman WB, Grisham JW, Lininger RA, Madden VJ, Sproul M, Anderson PA. Adult-derived stem cells from the liver become myocytes in the heart in vivo. Am J Pathol 2001;158:1929-35.
57. Orlic D, Hill JM, Arai AE. Stem cells for myocardial regeneration. Circ Res 2002;91:1092-102.
58. Menasche P, Hagege AA, Scorsin M, Pouzet B, Desnos M, Duboc D, et al. Myoblast transplantation for heart failure. Lancet 2001;357:279-80.
59. Yeh ET, Zhang S, Wu HD, Korbling M, Willerson JT, Estrov Z. Transdifferentiation of human peripheral blood CD34+-enriched cell population into cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, and smooth muscle cells in vivo. Circulation 2003;108:2070-3.
60. Zhang S, Wang D, Estrov Z, Raj S, Willerson JT, Yeh ET. Both cell fusion and transdifferentiation account for the transformation of human peripheral blood CD34-positive cells into cardiomyocytes in vivo. Circulation 2004;110:3803-7.
61. Murry CE, Soonpaa MH, Reinecke H, Nakajima H, Nakajima HO, Rubart M, et al. Haematopoietic stem cells do not transdifferentiate into cardiac myocytes in myocardial infarcts. Nature 2004;428:664-8.
62. Balsam LB, Wagers AJ, Christensen JL, Kofidis T, Weissman IL, Robbins RC. Haematopoietic stem cells adopt mature haematopoietic fates in ischaemic myocardium. Nature 2004;428:668-73.
63. Chachques JC, Acar C, Herreros J, Trainini JC, Prosper F, D'Attellis N, et al. Cellular cardiomyoplasty: clinical application. Ann Thorac Surg 2004;77:1121-30.
64. Strauer BE, Brehm M, Zeus T, Kostering M, Hernandez A, Sorg RV, et al. Repair of infarcted myocardium by autologous intracoronary mononuclear bone marrow cell transplantation in humans. Circulation 2002;106:1913-8.
65. Stamm C, Westphal B, Kleine HD, Petzsch M, Kittner C, Klinge H, et al. Autologous bone-marrow stem-cell transplantation for myocardial regeneration. Lancet 2003;361:45-6.
66. Kawamoto A, Tkebuchava T, Yamaguchi J, Nishimura H, Yoon YS, Milliken C, et al. Intramyocardial transplantation of autologous endothelial progenitor cells for therapeutic neovascularization of myocardial ischemia. Circulation 2003;107:461-8.
67. Caplice NM, Gersh BJ. Stem cells to repair the heart: a clinical perspective. Circ Res 2003;92:6-8.
68. Ozbaran M, Omay SB, Nalbantgil S, Kultursay H, Kumanlioglu K, Nart D, Pektok E. Autologous peripheral stem cell transplantation in patients with congestive heart failure due to ischemic heart disease. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2004;25:342-51.
69. Agbulut O, Vandervelde S, Al Attar N, Larghero J, Ghostine S, Leobon B, et al. Comparison of human skeletal myoblasts and bone marrow-derived CD133+ progenitors for the repair of infarcted myocardium. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;44:458-63.
70. von Harsdorf R, Poole-Wilson PA, Dietz R. Regenerative capacity of the myocardium: implications for treatment of heart failure. Lancet 2004;363:1306-13.
71. Siminiak T, Kurpisz M. Myocardial replacement therapy. Circulation 2003;108:1167-71.
72. Sunkomat JN, Gaballa MA. Stem cell therapy in ischemic heart disease. Cardiovasc Drug Rev 2003;21:327-42.
73. Forrester JS, Price MJ, Makkar RR. Stem cell repair of infarcted myocardium: an overview for clinicians. Circulation 2003;108:1139-45.
74. Barbash IM, Chouraqui P, Baron J, Feinberg MS, Etzion S, Tessone A, et al. Systemic delivery of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells to the infarcted myocardium: feasibility, cell migration, and body distribution. Circulation 2003;108:863-8.
75. Korbling M, Estrov Z. Adult stem cells for tissue repair - a new therapeutic concept? N Engl J Med 2003;349:570-82.
76. Tang GH, Fedak PW, Yau TM, Weisel RD, Kulik A, Mickle DA, Li RK. Cell transplantation to improve ventricular function in the failing heart. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2003;23:907-16.
77. Perin EC, Geng YJ, Willerson JT. Adult stem cell therapy in perspective. Circulation 2003;107:935-8.
78. Lee MS, Makkar RR. Stem-cell transplantation in myocardial infarction: a status report. Ann Intern Med 2004;140:729-37.
79. Assmus B, Schachinger V, Teupe C, Britten M, Lehmann R, Dobert N, et al. Transplantation of Progenitor Cells and Regeneration Enhancement in Acute Myocardial Infarction (TOPCARE-AMI). Circulation 2002;106:3009-17.
80. Wollert KC, Meyer GP, Lotz J, Ringes-Lichtenberg S, Lippolt P, Breidenbach C, et al. Intracoronary autologous bone-marrow cell transfer after myocardial infarction: the BOOST randomised controlled clinical trial. Lancet 2004;364:141-8.
81. Perin EC, Dohmann HF, Borojevic R, Silva SA, Sousa AL, Mesquita CT, et al. Transendocardial, autologous bone marrow cell transplantation for severe, chronic ischemic heart failure. Circulation 2003;107:2294-302.
82. Menasche P, Hagege AA, Vilquin JT, Desnos M, Abergel E, Pouzet B, et al. Autologous skeletal myoblast transplantation for severe postinfarction left ventricular dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;41:1078-83.
83. Hagege AA, Carrion C, Menasche P, Vilquin JT, Duboc D, Marolleau JP, et al. Viability and differentiation of autologous skeletal myoblast grafts in ischaemic cardiomyopathy. Lancet 2003;361:491-2.
84. Murry CE, Wiseman RW, Schwartz SM, Hauschka SD. Skeletal myoblast transplantation for repair of myocardial necrosis. J Clin Invest 1996;98:2512-23.
85. Smits PC, van Geuns RJ, Poldermans D, Bountioukos M, Onderwater EE, Lee CH, et al. Catheter-based intramyocardial injection of autologous skeletal myoblasts as a primary treatment of ischemic heart failure: clinical experience with six-month follow-up. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;42:2063-9.
86. Taylor DA, Atkins BZ, Hungspreugs P, Jones TR, Reedy MC, Hutcheson KA, et al. Regenerating functional myocardium: improved performance after skeletal myoblast transplantation [published erratum appears in Nat Med 1998;4:1200]. Nat Med 1998;4:929-33.
87. Charge SB, Rudnicki MA. Cellular and molecular regulation of muscle regeneration. Physiol Rev 2004;84:209-38.
88. Xaymardan M, Tang L, Zagreda L, Pallante B, Zheng J, Chazen JL, et al. Platelet-derived growth factor-AB promotes the generation of adult bone marrow-derived cardiac myocytes. Circ Res 2004;94:E39-45.
89. Askari AT, Unzek S, Popovic ZB, Goldman CK, Forudi F, Kiedrowski M, et al. Effect of stromal-cell-derived factor 1 on stem-cell homing and tissue regeneration in ischaemic cardiomyopathy. Lancet 2003;362:697-703.
90. Pasumarthi KB, Kardami E, Cattini PA. High and low molecular weight fibroblast growth factor-2 increase proliferation of neonatal rat cardiac myocytes but have differential effects on binucleation and nuclear morphology. Evidence for both paracrine and intracrine actions of fibroblast growth factor-2. Circ Res 1996;78:126-36.
91. Frangogiannis NG, Perrard JL, Mendoza LH, Burns AR, Lindsey ML, Ballantyne CM, et al. Stem cell factor induction is associated with mast cell accumulation after canine myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. Circulation 1998;98:687-98.
92. Condorelli G, Borello U, De Angelis L, Latronico M, Sirabella D, Coletta M, et al. Cardiomyocytes induce endothelial cells to trans-differentiate into cardiac muscle: implications for myocardium regeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001;98:10733-8.
93. Kang HJ, Kim HS, Zhang SY, Park KW, Cho HJ, Koo BK, et al. Effects of intracoronary infusion of peripheral blood stem-cells mobilised with granulocyte-colony stimulating factor on left ventricular systolic function and restenosis after coronary stenting in myocardial infarction: the MAGIC cell randomised clinical trial. Lancet 2004;363:751-6.
94. Min JY, Sullivan MF, Yang Y, Zhang JP, Converso KL, Morgan JP, Xiao YF. Significant improvement of heart function by cotransplantation of human mesenchymal stem cells and fetal cardiomyocytes in postinfarcted pigs. Ann Thorac Surg 2002;74:1568-75.
95. Yang Y, Min JY, Rana JS, Ke Q, Cai J, Chen Y, et al. VEGF enhances functional improvement of postinfarcted hearts by transplantation of ESC-differentiated cells. J Appl Physiol 2002;93:1140-51.
96. Gerecht-Nir S, Fishman B, Itskovitz-Eldor J. Cardiovascular potential of embryonic stem cells. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol 2004;276:58-65.
97. Kehat I, Kenyagin-Karsenti D, Snir M, Segev H, Amit M, Gepstein A, et al. Human embryonic stem cells can differentiate into myocytes with structural and functional properties of cardiomyocytes. J Clin Invest 2001;108:407-14.
98. Quesenberry PJ, Abedi M, Aliotta J, Colvin G, Demers D, Dooner M, et al. Stem cell plasticity: an overview. Blood Cells Mol Dis 2004;32:1-4.
99. Mummery C, Ward-van Oostwaard D, Doevendans P, Spijker R, van den Brink S, Hassink R, et al. Differentiation of human embryonic stem cells to cardiomyocytes: role of coculture with visceral endoderm-like cells. Circulation 2003;107:2733-40.
100. Xu C, Police S, Rao N, Carpenter MK. Characterization and enrichment of cardiomyocytes derived from human embryonic stem cells. Circ Res 2002;91:501-8.
101. de Wert G, Mummery C. Human embryonic stem cells: research, ethics and policy. Hum Reprod 2003;18:672-82.
102. Robertson JA. Human embryonic stem cell research: ethical and legal issues. Nat Rev Genet 2001;2:74-8.
103. Makino S, Fukuda K, Miyoshi S, Konishi F, Kodama H, Pan J, et al. Cardiomyocytes can be generated from marrow stromal cells in vitro. J Clin Invest 1999;103:697-705.
104. Lanza RP, Caplan AL, Silver LM, Cibelli JB, West MD, Green RM. The ethical validity of using nuclear transfer in human transplantation. JAMA 2000;284:3175-9.
105. Roell W, Fan Y, Xia Y, Stoecker E, Sasse P, Kolossov E, et al. Cellular cardiomyoplasty in a transgenic mouse model. Transplantation 2002;73:462-5.
106. Lanza R, Moore MA, Wakayama T, Perry AC, Shieh JH, Hendrikx J, et al. Regeneration of the infarcted heart with stem cells derived by nuclear transplantation. Circ Res 2004;94:820-7.
107. Rhind SM, Taylor JE, De Sousa PA, King TJ, McGarry M, Wilmut I. Human cloning: can it be made safe? Nat Rev Genet 2003;4:855-64.
108. Hwang WS, Roh SI, Lee BC, Kang SK, Kwon DK, Kim S, et al. Patient-specific embryonic stem cells derived from human SCNT blastocysts. Science 2005;308:1777-83.
109. Dimmeler S, Zeiher AM, Schneider MD. Unchain my heart: the scientific foundations of cardiac repair. J Clin Invest 2005;115:572-83.
110. Kawamoto A, Gwon HC, Iwaguro H, Yamaguchi JI, Uchida S, Masuda H, et al. Therapeutic potential of ex vivo expanded endothelial progenitor cells for myocardial ischemia. Circulation 2001;103:634-7.
111. Pasumarthi KB, Field LJ. Cardiomyocyte cell cycle regulation. Circ Res 2002;90:1044-54.
112. Wang JS, Shum-Tim D, Chedrawy E, Chiu RC. The coronary delivery of marrow stromal cells for myocardial regeneration: pathophysiologic and therapeutic implications. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2001;122:699-705.
113. Wagers AJ, Sherwood RI, Christensen JL, Weissman IL. Little evidence for developmental plasticity of adult hematopoietic stem cells. Science 2002;297:2256-9.
114. Verfaillie CM, Pera MF, Lansdorp PM. Stem cells: hype and reality. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program) 2002:369-91.
115. Fuchs S, Baffour R, Zhou YF, Shou M, Pierre A, Tio FO, et al. Transendocardial delivery of autologous bone marrow enhances collateral perfusion and regional function in pigs with chronic experimental myocardial ischemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;37:1726-32.
116. Heeschen C, Lehmann R, Honold J, Assmus B, Aicher A, Walter DH, et al. Profoundly reduced neovascularization capacity of bone marrow mononuclear cells derived from patients with chronic ischemic heart disease. Circulation 2004;109:1615-22.
117. Verma S, Kuliszewski MA, Li SH, Szmitko PE, Zucco L, Wang CH, et al. C-reactive protein attenuates endothelial progenitor cell survival, differentiation, and function: further evidence of a mechanistic link between C-reactive protein and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2004;109:2058-67.
118. Topol EJ. Current status and future prospects for acute myocardial infarction therapy. Circulation 2003;108(16 Suppl 1):III6-13.
119. Gerber BL, Rochitte CE, Melin JA, McVeigh ER, Bluemke DA, Wu KC, et al. Microvascular obstruction and left ventricular remodeling early after acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 2000;101:2734-41.
120. Pfeffer MA, Braunwald E. Ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction. Experimental observations and clinical implications. Circulation 1990;81:1161-72.
121. Mathur A, Martin JF. Stem cells and repair of the heart. Lancet 2004;364:183-92.
122. Lovell MJ, Mathur A. The role of stem cells for treatment of cardiovascular disease. Cell Prolif 2004;37:67-87.
123. Penn M. Stem cell treatment for myocardial infarction. J Invas Cardiol 2004;16:36S-40S.
124. Strauer BE, Kornowski R. Stem cell therapy in perspective. Circulation 2003;107:929-34
125. Kucia M, Dawn B, Hunt G, Guo Y, Wysoczynski M, Majka M, et al. Cells expressing early cardiac markers reside in the bone marrow and are mobilized into the peripheral blood after myocardial infarction. Circ Res 2004;95:1191-9.