Diagnosis of hepatitis A virus infection: A molecular approach

Clinical Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 19, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 63-79

  Nainan, Omana V ^a   Xia, Guoliang ^a,d   Vaughan, Gilberto ^a,b   Margolis, Harold S ^a,c  

^a NATL CENTER FOR INFECTIOUS DISEASES   (United States)

^b Instituto Nacional de Diagnostico y Referencia Epidemiologicos   (Mexico)

^c International Vaccine Institute   (South Korea)

^d CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HEPATITIS A VACCINE; MOLECULAR MARKER; STRUCTURAL PROTEIN; VIRUS PROTEIN;

ANTIGEN DETECTION; CLINICAL FEATURE; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; FOOD CONTAMINATION; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HEPATITIS A VIRUS; HUMAN; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; MOLECULAR MODEL; NONHUMAN; NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE; REVIEW; SERODIAGNOSIS; SEROTYPING; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; UNINDEXED SEQUENCE; UNITED STATES; VIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS ISOLATION; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

ANIMALS; EPIDEMIOLOGY, MOLECULAR; HEPATITIS A; HEPATITIS A VIRUS; HUMANS;

HEPATITIS A VIRUS;

EID: 31544445806     PISSN: 08938512     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/CMR.19.1.63-79.2006     Document Type: Review

References (266)

1. Abd El Galil, K. H., M. A. El Sokkary, S. M. Kheira, A. M. Saluzar, M. V. Yates, W. Chen, and A. Mulchandani. 2004. Combined immunomagnetic separation-molecular beacon-reverse transcription-PCR assay for detection of hepatitis A virus from environmental samples. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:4371-4374.
2. Akriviadis, E. A., and A. G. Redeker. 1989. Fulminant hepiititis A in intravenous drug users with chronic liver disease. Ann. Intern. Med. 110:838-839.
3. Anion, J. J., R. Devasia, G. Xia, O. V. Nainan, S. Hall, B. Lawson, J. Wolthius, P. D. M. Mac-Donald, C. Shepard, I. T. Williams, G. Armstrong, J. A. Gabel, P. Erwin, L. Sheeler, W. Kuhnert, P. Patel, G. Vaughan, A. Weltman, A. Craig, B. P. Bell, and A. Fiore. 2005. Molecular epidemiology of foodborne hepatitis A outbreaks in the United States, 2003. J. Infect. Dis. 192:1323-1330.
4. Angarano, G., F. Trotta, L. Monno, T. Santantonio, and G. Pastore. 1985. Serum IgA anti-hepatitis A virus as detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay: diagnostic significance in patients with acute and protracted hepatitis A. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 3:521-523.
5. Apaire-Marchais, V., B. H. Robertson, V. Aubineau-Ferre, M. G. LeRoux, F. Leveque, L. Schwartzbrod, and S. Billaudel. 1995. Direct sequencing of hepatitis A virus strains isolated during an epidemic in France. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:3977-3980.
6. Arauz-Ruiz, P., L. Sundqvist, Z. Garcia, L. Taylor, K. Visona, H. Norder, and L. O. Magnius. 2001. Presumed common source outbreaks of hepatitis A in an endemic area confirmed by limited sequencing within the VP1 region. J. Med. Virol. 65:449-456.
7. Armstrong, G. L., and B. P. Bell. 2002. Hepatitis A virus infections in the United States: model-based estimates and implications for childhood immunization. Pediatrics 109:839-845.
8. Asher, L. V. S., L. N. Binn, T. L. Mensing, R. H. Marchwicki, R. A. Vassell, and G. D. Young. 1995. Pathogenesis of hepatitis A in orally inoculated owl monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus). J. Med. Virol. 47:260-268.
9. Atmar, R. L., T. G. Metcalf, F. H. Neill, and M. K. Estes. 1993. Detection of enteric viruses in oysters by using the polymerase chain reaction. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:631-635.
10. Baroudy, B. M., J. R. Ticehurst, T. A. Miele, J. V. Maizel, R. H. Purcell, and S. M. Feinstone. 1985. Sequence analysis of hepatitis A virus cDNA coding for capsid proteins and RNA polymerase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82:2143-2147.
11. Bell, B. P., C. N. Shapiro, M. J. Alter, L. A. Moyer, F. N. Judson, K. Mottram, M. Fleenor, P. L. Ryder, and H. S. Margolis. 1998. The diverse patterns of hepatitis A epidemiology in the United States-implications for vaccination strategies. J. Infect. Dis. 178:1579-1584.
12. Bell, B. P. 2002. Global epidemiology of hepatitis A: implications for control strategies. p. 9-14. In H. S. Margolis, M. J. Alter, J. T. Liang, and J. L. Dienstag (ed.), Viral hepatitis and liver disease. International Medical Press, London, United Kingdom.
13. Bell, B. P., and S. M. Feinstone. 2004. Hepatitis A vaccine. p. 269-297. In S. A. Plotkin, W. A. Orenstein, and P. A. Offil (ed.), Vaccine. 4th ed. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa.
14. Bialck, S. R., D. A. Thoroughman, D. Hu, E. P. Simard, J. Chattin, J. Cheek, and B. P. Bell. 2004. Hepatitis A incidence and hepatitis a vaccination among American Indians and Alaska Natives, 1990-2001. Am. J. Public Health 94:996-1001.
15. Biziagos, E., J. Passagot, J. M. Crance, and R. Dcloince. 1988. Long-term survival of hepatitis A virus and poliovirus type 1 in mineral water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54:2705-2710.
16. Bloch, A. B., S. L. Stramer, J. D. Smith, H. S. Margolis, H. A. Fields, T. W. McKinley, C. P. Gerha, J. E. Maynard, and R. K. Sikes. 1990. Recovery of hepatitis A virus from a water supply responsible for a common source outbreak of hepatitis A. Am. J. Public Health 80:428-430.
17. Blumer, G. 1923. Infectious jaundice in the United States. JAMA 81:353-358.
18. Bosch, A., G. Sanchez, F. Le Guyader, H. Vanaclocha, L. Haugarreau, and R. M. Pinto. 2001. Human enteric viruses in Coquina clams associated with a large hepatitis A outbreak. Water Sci. Technol. 43:61-65.
19. Bower, W. A., O. V. Nainan, X. Han, and H. S. Margolis. 2000. Duration of viremia in hepatitis A virus infection. J. Infect. Dis. 182:12-17.
20. Brown, E. A., R. W. Jansen, and S. M. Lemon. 1989. Characterization of a simian hepatitis A virus (HAV): antigenic and genetic comparison with human HAV. J. Virol. 63:4932-4937.
21. Brown, E. A., S. P. Day, R. W. Jansen, and S. M. Lemon. 1991. The 5′ nontranslated region of hepatitis A virus: secondary atructure and elements required for translation in vitro. J. Virol. 65:5828-5838.
22. Bruisten, S. M., J. E. Steenbergen, A. S. Pijl, H. G. Niesters, G. J. van Doornum, and R. A. Coutinho. 2001. Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis A virus in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. J. Med. Virol. 63:88-95.
23. Bulkow, L. R., R. B. Wainwright, B. J. McMahon, J. P. Middaugh, S. A. Jenkerson, and H. S. Margolis. 1993. Secular trends in hepatitis A virus infection among Alaska Natives. J. Infect. Dis. 168:1017-1020.
24. Bustin, S. A. 2002. Quantification of mRNA using real-time reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR): trends and problems. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 29:23-39.
25. Buti, M., R. Jardi, A. Bosch, F. Rodriguez, G. Sanchez, R. Pinto, X. Costa, J. F. Sanchez-Avila, M. Cotrina, R. Estehan, and J. Guardia. 2001. Assessment of the PCR-Southern blot technique for the analysis of viremia in patients with acute hepatitis A. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 24:1-4.
26. Byun, K. S., J. H. Kim, K. J. Song, L. J. Baek, J. W. Song, S. H. Park, O. S. Kwon, J. E. Yeon, J. S. Kim, Y. T. Bak, and C. H. Lee. 2001. Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis A virus in Korea. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 16:519-524.
27. Calder, L., G. Simmons, C. Thornley, P. Taylor, K. Pritchard, G. Greening, and J. Bishop. 2003. An outbreak of hepatitis A associated wilh consumption of raw blueberries. Epidemiol. Infect. 131:745-751.
28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1999. Prevention of hepatitis A through active or passive immunization: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 48(RR-12):1-37.
29. Centers For Disease Control and Prevention. 1997. Hepatitis A vaccination programs in communities with high rates of hepatitis A. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 46:600-603.
30. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2004. Final 2003 reports of notifiable diseases. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 53:687-705.
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1996. Hepatitis surveillance report no. 56. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. CDC. Atlanta. Ga. (Available at http://www.cdc.gov/nciod /diseases/hepatitis/h96surve.htm. Accessed 1 September 1998.)
32. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2004. Hepatitis surveillance report no. 59. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. CDC. Atlanta. Ga. (Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod /diseases/hepatitis/resource/PDFs/Hep_surveillance_59.pdf. Accessed 25 March 2005.)
33. Chen, Y., J. Mao, Y. Hong, L. Yang, Z. Ling, and W. Yu. 2001. Genetic analysis of wild-type hepatitis A virus strains. Chinese Med. J. 114:422-423.
34. Ching, K. Z., T. Nakano, L. E. Chapman, A. Demhy, and B. H. Robertson. 2002. Genetic characterization of wild-type genotype VII hepatitis A virus. J. Gen. Virol. 83:53-60.
35. Chiriaco, P., C. Gaudalupi, M. K. Armigliato, F. Bortolotti, and G. Realdi. 1986. Polyphasic course of hepatitis type A in children. J. Infect. Dis. 154:231.
36. Chironna, M., C. Germinario, D. De Medici, A. Fiore, S. Di Pasquale, M. Quarto, and S. Barbuti. 2002. Detection of hepatitis A virus in mussels from different sources marketed in Puglia region (South Italy). Int. J. Food Microbiol. 75:11-18.
37. Chironna, M., A. Grottola, C. Lanave, E. Villa, S. Harhuti, and M. Quarto. 2003. Genetic analysis of HAV strains recovered from patients with acute hepatitis from Southern Italy. J. Med. Virol. 70:343-349.
38. Chironna, M., P. Lopalco, R. Prato, C. Germinario, S. Barbuti, and M. Quarto. 2004. Outbreak of infection with hepatitis A virus (HAV) associated with a foodhandler and confirmed by sequence analysis reveals a new HAV genotype IB variant. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42:2825-2828.
39. Chitamhar, S. D., and M. S. Chadha. 2000. Use of filter paper disks for hepatitis A surveillance. Indian J. Gastroenterol. 19:165-167.
40. Chomezynski, P., and N. Sacchi. 1987. Single-step method of RNA isolation by acid guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform extraction. Anal. Biochem. 162:156-159.
41. Chomezynski, P. 1993. A reagent for the single-step simultaneous isolation of RNA. DNA and proteins from cell and tissue samples. BioTechniques 15:532-537.
42. Chudy, M., I. Budek, B. Keller-Stanislawski, K. A. McCaustland, S. Neidhold, B. H. Robertson, C. M. Nubling, R. Seitz, and J. Lower. 1999. A new cluster of hepatitis A infection in hemophiliacs traced to a contaminated plasma pool. J. Med. Virol. 57:91-99.
43. Cockayne, E. A. 1912. Catarrhal jaundice, sporadic and epidemic, and its relation to acute yellow atrophy of the liver. Q. J. Med. 6:1-29.
44. Coelho, C., A. P. Heinert, C. M. Simoes, and C. R. Barardi. 2003. Hepatitis A virus detection in oysters (Crassostrea gigas) in Santa Catarina State. Brazil, by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. J. Food Prot. 66:507-511.
45. Cohen, J. I., B. Rosenblum, J. R. Ticehurst, R. J. Daemer, S. M. Feinstone, and R. H. Purcell. 1987. complete nucleotide sequence of an attenuated hepatitis A virus: comparison with wild-type virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:2497-2501.
46. Cohen, J. I., J. R. Ticehurst, R. H. Purcell, A. Buckler-White, and B. M. Baroudy. 1987. Complete nucleotide sequence of wild-type hepatitis A virus: Comparison with different strains of hepatitis A virus and other picornaviruses. J. Virol. 61:50-59.
47. Cohen, J. I., B. Rosenblum, S. M. Feinstone, J. Ticehurst, and R. H. Purcell. 1989. Attenuation and cell culture adaptation of hepatitis A virus (HAV): a genetic analysis with HAV cDNA. J. Virol. 63:5364-5370.
48. Cohen, J. I., S. Feinstone, and R. H. Purcell. 1989. Hepatitis A virus infection in a chimpanzee: duration of viremia and detection of virus in saliva and throat swabs. J. Infect. Dis. 160:887-890.
49. Corey, L., and K. K. Holmes. 1980. Sexual transmission of hepatitis A in homosexual men: incidence and mechanism. N. Engl. J. Med. 302:435-438.
50. Costa-Mattioli, M., V. Ferre, S. Monpoeho, L. Garcia, R. Colina, S. Billaudel, I. Vega, R. Perez-Bercoff, and J. Cristina. 2001. Genetic variability of hepatitis A virus in South America reveals heterogeneity and co-circulation during epidemic outbreaks. J. Gen. Virol. 82:2647-2652.
51. Costa-Mattioli, M., S. Monpoeho, C. Schvoerer, B. Besse, M. H. Aleman, S. Billaudel, J. Cristina, and V. Ferre. 2001. Genetic analysis of hepatitis A virus outbreak in France confirms the co-circulation of sub-genotypes Ia, Ib and reveals a new genetic lineage. J. Med. Virol. 65:233-240.
52. Costa-Mattioli, M., J. Cristina, H. Romero, R. Perez-Bercof, D. Casane, R. Colina, L. Garcia, I. Vega, G. Gliknian, V. Romanowsky, A. Castello, E. Nicand, M. Gassin, S. Billaudel, and V. Ferre. 2002. Molecular evolution of hepatitis A virus: a new classification based on the complete VP1 protein. J. Virol. 76:9516-9525.
53. Costa-Mattioli, M., S. Monpoeho, E. Nicand, M. H. Aleman, S. Billandel, and V. Ferre. 2002. Quanlification and duration of viraemia during hepatitis A infection as determined by real-time RT-PCR. J. Viral Hepat. 9:101-106.
54. Continho, K. A., P. Albrecht-Van Ient, T. Rijsdijk, N. Lelie, N. Nagelkerke, and H. Kuipers. 1983. Prevalence and incidence of hepatitis A among male homosexuals. Br. Med. J. (Clin. Res. Ed.) 287:1743-1745.
55. Cromeans, T., M. D. Sobsey, and H. A. Fields. 1987. Development of a plaque assay for a cytopathic, rapidly replicating isolate of hepatitis A virus. J. Med. Virol. 22:45-56.
56. Cromeans, T. L., O. V. Nainan, and H. S. Margolis. 1997. Detection of hepatitis A virus RNA in oyster meat. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63:2460-2463.
57. Cromeans, T. L., M. O. Favarov, O. V. Nainan, and H. S. Margolis. 2001. Hepatitis A and E viruses, p. 23-76. In Y. H. Hui, S. A. Sattar, K. D. Murrell, W.-K. Nip, and P. S. Stanfield (ed.). Foodborne disease handbook. 2nd ed., vol. 2. Viruses, parasite, pathogens, and HACCP. Marcel Dekker, New York, N.Y.
58. Cuthbert, J. A. 2001. Hepatitis A: old and new. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14:38-58.
59. Daemer, R. J., S. M. Feinstone, I. D. Gust, and R. H. Purcell. 1981. Propagation of human hepatitis A virus in African green monkey kidney cell culture: primary isolation and serial passage. Infect. Immun. 32:388-393.
60. de Almeida. L. M., R. S. Azevedo, A. A. Guimaraes, S. Coutinho Eda, C. J. Struchiner, and F., Massad. 1999. Detection of antibodies against hepatitis A virus in elnates of blood spotted on filter-paper: a pilot study in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 93:401-404.
61. Delem, A. D. 1992. Comparison of modified HAVAB and ELISA for determination of vaccine-induced anti-HAV response. Biologicals 20:289-291.
62. Deng, M. Y., S. P. Day, and D. O. Cliver. 1994. Detection of hepatitis A virus in environmental samples by antigen-capture PCR. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:1927-1933.
63. Dentiger, C. M., W. A. Bower, O. V. Nainan, S. M. Cotter, G. Myers, L. M. Duhusky, S. Fowler, E. D. Salehi, and B. P. Bell. 2001. An outbreak of hepatitis A associated with green onions. J. Infect. Dis. 183:1273-1276.
64. de Paula, V. S., M. L. Baptista, E. Lampe, C. Niel, and A. M. C. Gaspar, 2002. Characterization of hepatitis A virus isolates from sub-genotypes 1A and 1B in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. J. Med. Virol. 66:22-27.
65. de Paula, V. S., L. M. Villar, and A. M. C. Gaspar. 2003. Comparison of four extraction methods to detect hepatitis A virus RNA in serum and stool samples. Braz. J. Infect. Dis. 7:135-141.
66. de Paula, V. S., L. Lu, C. Niel, A. M. C. Gaspar, and B. H. Robertson. 2004. Genetic analysis of hepatitis A virus isolates from Brazil. J. Med. Virol. 73:378-383.
67. Desenclos, J. C., K. C. Klontz, M. H. Wilder, O. V. Nainan, H. S. Margolis, and R. A. Gunn. 1991. A multistate outbreak of hepatitis A caused by the consumption of raw oysters. Am. J. Public Health 81:1268-1272.
68. De Serres, G., T. L. Cromeans, B. Levesque, N. Brassard, C. Barthe, M. Dionne, H. Prud'homme, D. Paradis, C. N. Shapiro, O. V. Nainan, and H. S. Margolis. 1999. Molecular confirmation of hepatitis A virus from well water: epidemiology and public health implications. J. Infect. Dis. 179: 37-43.
69. Diaz, B. I., C. A. Sariol, A. Normann, E. Rodriguez, and B. Flehmig. 2001. Genetic relatedness of Cuban HAV wild-type isolates. J. Med. Virol. 64: 96-103.
70. Dienstag, J. I., I. D. Gust, C. R. Lucas, D. C. Wong, and R. H. Purcell. 1976. Mussel-associated viral hepatitis, type A: serological confirmation. Lancet i:561-564.
71. Dignani, M. C., M. H. Miceli, C. M. Rosa, J. Gatica, J. Martinez-Rolon, and M. Pizzolato. 2003. Loss of hepatitis A virus (HAV) antibodies after peripheral stem cell transplantation (PSCT). Bone Marrow Transplant. 31: 809-812.
72. Di Pinto, A., V. T. Forte, G. M. Tantillo, V. Terio, and C. Buonavoglia. 2003. Detection of hepatitis A virus in shellfish (Mytilus galloprovineialis) with RT-PCR. J. Food Prot. 66:1681-1685.
73. Di Pinto, A., M. C. Conversano, V. T. Forte, G. La Salandra, C. Montervino, and G. M. Tantillo. 2004. A comparison of RT-PCR-based assays for the detection of HAV from shellfish. New Microbiol. 27:119-124.
74. Divizia, M., R. Gahrieli, A. Macaluso, B. Bagnato, E. Palombi, E. Bnonomo, F. Cenko, L. Leno, S. Bino, A. Basha, and A. Pana. 2005. Nucleotide correlation between HAV isolates from human patients and environmental samples. J. Med. Virol. 75:8-12.
75. Domingo, E., C. Esearmis, N. Sevilla, A. Moya, S. F. Elena, J. Quer, I. S. Novella, and J. J. Holland. 1996. Basic concepts in RNA virus evolution. FASEB J. 10:859-864.
76. Emerson, S. U., S. A. Tsarev, and R. H. Purcell. 1991. Biological and molecular comparisons of human (HM-175) and simian (AGM-27) hepatitis A viruses. J. Hepatol. 13(Suppl. 4):S144-S145.
77. Emerson, S. U., Y. K. Huang, and R. H. Purcell. 1993. 2B and 2C mutations are essential but mutations throughout the genome of HAV contribute to adaptation to cell culture. Virology 194:475-480.
78. Emerson, S. U., S. A. Tsarev, S. Govindarajan, M. Shapiro, and R. H. Purcell. 1996. A simian strain of hepatitis A virus. AGM-27, functions as an attenuated vaccine for chimpanzees. J. Infect. Dis. 173:592-597.
79. Emerson, S. U., Y. K. Huang, H. Nguyen, A. Brockington, S. Govindarajan, M. S. Claire, M. Shapiro, and R. H. Purcell. 2002. Identification of VP1/2A and 2C as virulence genes of hepatitis A virus and demonstration of genetic instability of 2C. J. Virol. 76:8551-8559.
80. Feinstone, S. M., A. Z. Kapikian, and R. H. Purcell. 1973. Hepatitis A: detection by immune electron microscopy of a virus-like antigen associated with acute illness. Science 182:1026-1028.
81. Feinstone, S. M., R. J. Daemer, I. D. Gust, and R. H. Purcell. 1983. Live attenuated vaccine for hepatitis A. Dev. Biol. Stand. 54:429-432.
82. Findlay, G. M., J. L. Dunlop, and H. C. Brown. 1931. Observations on epidemic catarrhal jaundice. Br. Med. Hyg. 25:7-24.
83. Flehmig, B. 1980. Hepatitis A-virus in cell culture. I. Propagation of different hepatitis A-virus isolates in a fetal rhesus monkey kidney cell line (FrhK-4). Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 168:239-248.
84. Fujiwara, K., O. Yokosuka, and T. Ehata. 1997. Frequent detection of hepatitis A viral RNA in scrum during early convalescent phase of acute hepatitis A. Hepatology 26:1634-1639.
85. Fujiwara, K., O. Yokosuka, T. Ehata, F. Imazeki, and H. Saisho. 2000. PCR-SSCP analysis of 5′-nontranslated region of hepatitis A viral RNA: comparison with clinicopathological features of hepatitis A. Dig. Dis. Sci. 45:2422-2427.
86. Fujiwara, K., O. Yokosuka, K. Fukai, F. Imazeki, H. Saisho, and M. Omata. 2001. Analysis of full-length hepatitis A virus genome in sera from patients with fulminant and self-limited acute type A hepatitis. J. Hepatol. 35:112-119.
87. Fujiwara, K., O. Yokosuka, F. Imazeki, H. Saisho, N. Saotome, K. Suzuki, K. Okita, E. Tanaka, and M. Omata. 2003. Analysis of the genotype-determining region of hepatitis A viral RNA in relation to disease severities. Hepatol. Res. 25:124-134.
88. Funkhouser, A. W., R. H. Purcell, E. D'Hondt, and S. U. Emerson. 1994. Attenuated hepatitis A virus: genetic determinants of adaptation to growth in MRC-5 cells. J. Virol. 68:148-157.
89. Gabrieli, R., G. Sanchez, A. Macaluso, F. Cenko, S. Bino, L. Palombi, E. Buonomo, R. M. Pinto, A. Bosch, and M. Divizia. 2004. Hepatitis in Albanian children: molecular analysis of hepatitis A virus isolates. J. Med. Virol. 72:533-537.
90. Gauss-Muller, V., K. Lottspeich, and F. Deinhardt. 1986. Characterization of hepatitis A virus structural proteins. Virology 155:732-736.
91. Giles, J. P., H. Liebhaber, S. Krugman, and C. Lattimer. 1964. Early viremia and viruria in infectious hepatitis. Virology 24:107-108.
92. Gilgen, M., D. Germann, J. Luthy, and P. Hubner. 1997. Three-step isolation method for sensitive detection of enterovirus, rotavirus, hepatitis A virus, and small round structured viruses in water samples. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 37:189-199.
93. Glikson, M., E. Galun, R. Oren, R. Tur-Kaspa, and D. Shouval. 1992. Relapsing hepatitis A: review of 14 cases and literature survey. Medicine (Baltimore) 71:14-23.
94. Goswami, B. B., W. Burkhardt III, and T. A. Cebula. 1997. Identification of genetic variants of hepatitis A virus. J. Virol. Methods 65:95-103.
95. Graff, J., J. Ticehurst, and B. Flehmig. 1993. Detection of hepatitis A virus in sewage sludge by antigen capture polymerase chain reaction. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:3165-3170.
96. Graff, J., A. Normann, S. M. Feinstone, and B. Flehmig. 1994. Nucleotide sequence of wild-type hepatitis A virus GBM in comparison with two cell culture-adapted variants. J. Virol. 68:548-554.
97. Grinde, B., K. Stene-Johansen, B. Sharma, T. Hoel, M. Jensenius, and K. Skaug. 1997. Characterisation of an epidemic of hepatitis A virus involving intravenous drug abusers-infection by needle sharing? J. Med. Virol. 53:69-75.
98. Hadler, S. C., H. M. Webster, J. J. Erben, J. E. Swanson, and J. E. Maynard. 1980. Hepatitis A in day-care centers: a community-wide assessment. N. Engl. J. Med. 302:1222-1227.
99. Hadler, S. C. 1991. Global impact of hepatitis A virus infection: changing patterns, p. 14-20. In F. B. Hollinger, S. M. Lemon, and H. S. Margolis (ed.). Viral hepatitis and liver disease, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, Md.
100. Halliday, M. L., L. Y. Kang, T. K. Zhou, M. D. Hu, Q. C. Pan, T. Y. Fu, Y. S. Huang, and S. L. Hu. 1991. An epidemic of hepatitis A attributable to the ingestion of raw clams in Shanghai, China. J. Infect. Dis. 164: 852-859.
101. Harkess, J., B. Gildon, and G. R. Istre. 1989. Outbreaks of hepatitis A among illicit drug users, Oklahoma. 1984-87. Am. J. Public Health 79:463-466.
102. Havens, W. P., Jr., and J. R. Paul. 1945. Prevention of infectious hepatitis with gamma globulin. JAMA 129:270-272.
103. Havens, W. P., and R. E. Marck, Jr. 1946. The leukocytic response of patients with experimentally induced infectious hepatitis. Am. J. Med. Sci. 212:129-138.
104. Havens, W. P. 1947. The etiology of infectious hepatitis. JAMA 134:653-655.
105. Henning, K. J., E. Bell, J. Braun, and N. D. Barker. 1995. A communitywide outbreak of hepatitis A: risk factors for infection among homosexual and bisexual men. Am. J. Med. 99:132-136.
106. Hollinger, F. B., D. W. Bradley, J. E. Maynard, G. R. Dreesman, and J. L. Melnick. 1975. Detection of hepatitis A viral antigen by radioimmunoassay. J. Immunol. 115:1464-1466.
107. Hollinger, F. B., and S. U. Emerson. 2001. Hepatitis A virus, p. 799-840. In D. M. Knipe and P. M. Howley (ed.), Fields virology. 4th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, New York, N.Y.
108. Hooper, R. R., C. W. Juels, J. A. Routenberg, W. O. Harrison, M. E. Kilpatrick, S. J. Kendra, and J. L. Dienstag. 1977. An outbreak of type A viral hepatitis at the Naval Training Center, San Diego: epidemiologic evaluation. Am. J. Epidemiol. 105:148-155.
109. Huang, S. N., D. Lorenz, and R. J. Gerety. 1979. Electron and immunoelectron microscopic study un liver tissues of marmosets infected with hepatitis A virus. Lab. Investig. 41:63-71.
110. Hurni, W. M., D. Laufer, W. J. Miller, J. Ryan, and B. Watson. 1993. Anti-hepatitis A in the general population and in hepatitis A vaccinees using saliva and serum as diagnostic media. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 694:289-292.
111. Hussain, Z., B. C. Dash, S. A. Husain, M. Asima, S. Chattopadhyay, A. Malik, Y. Poovorawan, A. Tbeamboonlers, and P. Kar. 2005. Hepatitis A viral genotypes and clinical relevance: clinical and molecular characterization of hepatitis A virus isolates from northern India. Hepatol. Res. 32:16-24.
112. Hutin, Y. J., V. Pool, E. H. Cramer, O. V. Nainan, J. Weth, I. T. Williams, S. T. Goldstein, K. K. Gensheimer, B. P. Bell, C. N. Shapiro, M. J. Alter, H. S. Margolis, et al. 1999. A multistate, foodborne outbreak of hepatitis A. N. Engl. J. Med. 340:595-602.
113. Innis, B. L., R. Snitbhan, P. Kunasol, T. Laorakpongse, W. Poopatanakool, C. A. Kozik, S. Suntayakorn, T. Suknuntapong, A. Safary, D. B. Tang, and J. W. Boslego. 1994. Protection against hepatitis A by an inactivated vaccine. JAMA 271:1328-1334.
114. Inoue, K., M. Yoshiba, H. Yotsuyanagi, T. Otsuka, K. Sekiyama, and R. Fujita. 1996. Chronic hepatitis A with persistent viral replication. J. Med. Virol. 50:322-324.
115. Jacobson, S. K., R. Buttery, J. V. Parry, K. R. Perry, and T. G. Wreghitt. 1995. Investigation of a hepatitis A outbreak in a primary school by sequential saliva sampling. Clin. Diagn. Virol. 3:173-180.
116. Jansen, R. W., G. Siegl, and S. M. Lemon. 1990. Molecular epidemiology of human hepatitis A virus defined by an antigen-capture polymerase chain reaction method. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:2867-2871.
117. Jansen, R. W., G. Siegl, and S. M. Lemon. 1991. Molecular epidemiology of human hepatitis A virus (HAV), p. 58-62. In B. N. Hollinger, S. M. Lemon, and H. S. Margolis (ed.). Viral hepatitis anti liver disease. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, Md.
118. Jean, J., B. Blais, A. Darveau, and I. Fliss. 2001. Detection of hepatitis A virus by the nucleic acid sequence-based amplification technique and comparison with reverse transcription-PCR. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67:5593-5600.
119. Jean, J., B. Blais, A. Darveau, and I. Fliss. 2002. Simultaneous detection and identification of hepatitis A virus and rotavirus by multiplex nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA) and microtiter plate hybridization system. J. Virol. Methods 105:123-132.
120. Jean, J., D. H. D'Souza, and L. A. Jaykus. 2004. Multiplex nucleic acid sequence-based amplification for simultaneous detection of several enteric viruses in model ready-to-eat foods. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:6603-6610.
121. Jiang, X., M. K. Estes, and T. G. Metcalf. 1987. Detection of hepatitis A virus by hybridization with single-stranded RNA probes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 53:2487-2495.
122. Jindal, M., S. S. Rana, R. K. Gupta, K. Das, and P. Kar. 2002. Serological study of hepatitis A virus infection amongst the students of a medical college in Delhi and evaluation of the need of vaccination. Indian J. Med. Res. 115:1-4.
123. Joshi, M. S., S. D. Chitambar, V. A. Arankalle, and M. S. Chadha. 2002. Evaluation of urine as a clinical specimen for diagnosis of hepatitis A. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 9:840-845.
124. Jothikumar, N., D. O. Cliver, and T. W. Mariam. 1998. Immunomagnetic captures PCR for rapid concentration and detection of hepatitis A virus from environmental samples. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:504-508.
125. Jothikumar, N., R. Paulmurugan, P. Padmaimbhan, R. B. Sundari, S. Kamatchiammal, and K. S. Rao. 2000. Duplex RT-PCR for simultaneous detection of hepatitis A and hepatitis E virus isolated from drinking water samples. J. Environ. Monit. 2:587-590.
126. Kabrane-Lazizi, Y., S. U. Emerson, C. Herzog, and R. H. Purcell. 2001. Detection of antibodies to HAV 3C proteinase in experimentally infected chimpanzees and in naturally infected children. Vaccine 19:2878-2883.
127. Kao, H. W., M. Ashcavai, and A. G. Redeker. 1984. The persistence of hepatitis A IgM antibody after acute clinical hepatitis A. Hepatology 4:933-936.
128. Karetnyi, I., A. G. Andzhaparidze, T. M. Orlova, and M. S. Balaian. 1989. Study of human and simian hepatitis A virus isolated by an immunoenzyme method using polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies. Vopr. Virusol. 34:50-53. (In Russian.)
129. Karlsen, F., H. B. Steen, and J. M. Nesland. 1995. SYBR green I DNA staining increases the detection sensitivity of viruses by polymerase chain reaction. J. Virol. Methods 55:153-156.
130. Khanna, B., J. E. Spelbring, B. L. Innis, and B. H. Robertson. 1992. Characterization of a genetic variant of human hepatitis A virus. J. Med. Virol. 36:118-124.
131. Kiltie, A. E., and A. J. Ryan. 1997. SYBR Green I staining of pulsed field agarose gels is a sensitive and inexpensive way of quantitating DNA double-strand breaks in mammalian cells. Nucleic Acids Res. 25:2945-2946.
132. Kingsley, D. H., G. K. Meade, and G. P. Richards. 2002. Detection of both hepatitis A virus and Norwalk-like virus in imported clams associated with food-borne illness. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:3914-3918.
133. Kingsley, D. H., and G. P. Richards. 2001. Rapid and efficient extraction method for reverse transcription-PCR detection of hepatitis A and Norwalk-like viruses in shellfish. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67:4152-4157.
134. Komurian-Pradel, F., G. Paraphos-Baccala, M. Sodoyer, P. Chevallier, B. Mandrand, V. Lotteau, and P. Andre. 2001. Quantitation of HCV RNA using real-time PCR and fluorimetry. J. Virol. Methods 95:111-119.
135. Koopmans, M., C. H. von Bonsdorff, J. Vinje, D. de Medici, and S. Monroe. 2002. Foodborne viruses. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 26:187-205.
136. Krugman, S., R. Ward, J. P. Giles, D. Bodansky, and A. M. Jacobs. 1959. Infectious hepatitis: detection of virus during the incubation period and in clinically inapparent infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 261:729-734.
137. Krugman, S., R. Ward, and J. P. Giles. 1962. The natural history of infectious hepatitis. Am. J. Med. 32:717-728.
138. Krugman, S., J. P. Giles, and J. Hammond. 1967. Infectious hepatitis. Evidence for two distinctive clinical, epidemiological, and immunological types of infection. JAMA 200:365-373.
139. LaBrecque, F. D., D. R. LaBrecque, D. Klinzman, S. Perlman, J. B. Cederna, P. L. Winokur, J. Q. Han, and J. T. Stapleton. 1998. Recombinant hepatitis A virus antigen: improved production and utility in diagnostic immunoassays. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36:2014-2018.
140. Laufer, D. S., W. Hurni, B. Watson, W. Miller, J. Ryan, D. Nalin, and L. Brown. 1995. Saliva and serum as diagnostic media for antibody to hepatitis A virus in adults and in individuals who have received an inactivated hepatitis A vaccine. Clin. Infect. Dis. 20:868-871.
141. Lednar, W. M., S. M. Lemon, J. W. Kirkpatrick, R. R. Redfield, M. L. Fields, and P. W. Kelley. 1985. Frequency of illness associated with epidemic hepatitis A virus infections in adults. Am. J. Epidemiol. 122:226-233.
142. Lee, D. H., and A. M. Prince. 2001. Automation of nucleic acid extraction for NAT screening of individual blood units. Transfusion 41:483-487.
143. Leino, T., P. Leinikki, T. Hyypia, M. Ristola, J. Suni, J. Sutinen, A. Holopainen, O. Haikala, M. Valle, and T. Rostila. 1997. Hepatitis A outbreak amongst intravenous amphetamine abusers in Finland. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 29:213-216.
144. Lemon, S. M., L. N. Binn, and R. H. Marchwicki. 1983. Radioimmunofocus assay for quantitation of hepatitis A virus in cell cultures. J. Clin. Microbiol. 17:834-839.
145. Lemon, S. M. 1994. The natural history of hepatitis A: the potential for transmission by transfusion of blood or blood products. Vox Sang 67(Suppl 4):19-23.
146. Lemon, S. M. 1992. HAV: current concepts of the molecular virology, immunobiology and approaches to vaccine development. Rev. Med. Virol. 2:73-87.
147. Lemon, S. M., R. W. Jansen, and E. A. Brown. 1992. Genetic, antigenic and biological differences between strains of hepatitis A virus. Vaccine 10(Suppl. 1):S40-S44.
148. Lemon, S. M. 1993. Immunologic approaches to assessing the response to inactivated hepatitis A vaccine. J. Hepatol. 18(Suppl 2):S15-S19.
149. Li, J. W., T. X. Zhong, W. W. Xin, L. Z. Jin, and H. C. Fu. 2004. Mechanisms of inactivation of hepatitis A virus in water by chlorine dioxide. Water Res. 38:1514-1519.
150. Liu, G., N. Hu, and Y. Hu. 2003. Full-length genome of wild-type hepatitis A virus (DL3) isolated in China. World J. Gastroenterol. 9:499-504.
151. Locarnini, S. A., A. G. Coulepis, A. A. Ferris, N. I. Lehmann, and I. D. Gust. 1978. Purification of hepatitis A virus from human feces. Intervirology 10:300-308.
152. Locarnini, S. A., A. G. Coulepis, J. Kaldor, and I. D. Gust. 1980. Coproantibodies in hepatitis A: detection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immune electron microscopy. J. Clin. Microbiol. 11:710-716.
153. Lowry, P. W., R. Levine, D. F. Stroup, R. A. Gunn, M. H. Wilder, and C. Konigsberg, Jr. 1989. Hepatitis A outbreak on a floating restaurant in Florida. 1986. Am. J. Epidemiol. 129:155-164.
154. Lu, L., K. Z. Ching, V. S. de Paula, T. Nakano, G. Siegl, M. Weitz, and B. H. Robertson. 2004. Characterization of the complete genomic sequence of genotype II hepatitis A virus (CF53/Berne isolate). J. Gen. Virol. 85:2943-2952.
155. Mackay, I. M., K. E. Arden, and A. Nitsche. 2002. Real-time PCR in virology. Nucleic Acids Res. 30:1292-1305.
156. Mackiewicz, V., E. Dussaix, M. F. Le Petitcorps, and A. M. Roque-Afonso. 2004. Detection of hepatitis A virus RNA in saliva. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42:4329-4331.
157. Margolis, H. S., O. V. Nainan, K. Krawezynski, D. W. Bradley, J. W. Ebert, J. Spelhring, H. A. Fields, and J. E. Maynard. 1988. Appearance of immune complexes during experimental hepatitis A infection in chimpanzees. J. Med. Virol. 26:315-326.
158. Margolis, H. S., and O. V. Nainan. 1990. Identification of virus components in circulating immune complexes isolated during hepatitis A virus infection. Hepatology 11:31-37.
159. Margolis, H. S. 2000. Viral hepatitis, p. 174-188. In R. B. Wallace and B. N. Doebbeling (ed.), Maxcy-Rosenau-Last Public Health and Preventive Medicine, 14th ed. Appleton & Langen, Stamford, Conn.
160. Marziali, A., and M. Akeson. 2001. New DNA sequencing methods. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 3:195-223.
161. Mbayed, V. A., S. Sookoian, V. Alfonso, and R. H. Campos. 2002. Genetic characterization of hepatitis A virus isolates from Buenos Aires, Argentina. J. Med. Virol. 68:168-174.
162. McCaustland, K. A., W. W. Bond, D. W. Bradley, J. W. Ebert, and J. E. Maynard. 1982. Survival of hepatitis A virus in feces after drying and storage for 1 month. J. Clin. Microbiol. 16:957-958.
163. McMahon, B. J., M. Beller, J. Williams, M. Schloss, H. Tauttila, and L. Bulkow. 1996. A program to control an outbreak of hepatitis A in Alaska by using an inactivated hepatitis A vaccine. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 150:733-739.
164. Morace, G., G. Pisani, M. Divizia, and A. Pana. 1993. Detection of hepatitis A virus in concentrated river water by polymerase chain reaction. Zentralbl. Hyg. Umweltmed. 193:521-527.
165. Moritsugu, Y., J. L. Dienstag, J. Valdesuso, D. C. Wong, J. Wagner, J. A. Routenberg, and R. H. Purcell. 1976. Purification of hepatitis A antigen from feces and detection of antigen and antibody by immune adherence hemagglutination. Infect. Immun. 13:898-908.
166. Morrison, T. B., J. J. Weis, and C. T. Wittwer. 1998. Quantification of low-copy transcripts by continuous SYBR Green I monitoring during amplification. BioTechniques 24:954-958, 960, 962.
167. Nainan, O. V., H. S. Margolis, B. H. Robertson, M. Balayan, and M. A. Brinton. 1991. Sequence analysis of a new hepatitis A virus naturally infecting cynomolgus macaques (Macacafascicularis). J. Gen. Virol. 72:1685-1689.
168. Nainan, O. V., M. A. Brinton, and H. S. Margolis. 1992. Identification of amino acids located in the antibody binding sites of human hepatitis A virus. Virology 191:984-987.
169. Nainan, O. V., T. L. Cromeans, and H. S. Margolis. 1996. Sequence-specific, single-primer amplification and detection of PCR products for identification of hepatitis viruses. J. Virol. Methods 61:127-134.
170. Nainan, O. V., G. L. Armstrong, X. Han, I. T. Williams, B. P. Bell, and H. S. Margolis. 2005. Hepatitis A molecular epidemiology in the United States. 1996-1997: sources of infection and implications of vaccination policy. J. Infect. Dis. 191:957-963.
171. Najarian, R., D. Caput, W. Gee, S. J. Potter, A. Renard, J. Merryweather, G. Van Nest, and D. Dina. 1985. Primary structure and gene organization of human hepatitis A virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82:2627-2631.
172. Nalin, D. R., B. J. Kuter, L. Brown, C. Patterson, G. B. Calandra, A. Werzberger, D. Shouval, E. Ellerbeck, S. L. Block, and R. Bishop. 1993. Worldwide experience with the CR326F-derived inactivated hepatitis A virus vaccine in pediatric and adult populations: an overview. J. Hepatol. 18(Suppl 2):s51-s55.
173. Nasser, A. M., and T. G. Metcalf. 1987. Production of cytopathology in FRhK-4 cells by BS-C-1-passaged hepatitis A virus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 53:2967-2971.
174. Nitsche, A., N. Steuer, C. A. Schmidt, O. Landt, H. Ellerbrok, G. Pauli, and W. Siegert. 2000. Detection of human cytomegalovirus DNA by real-time quantitative PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38:2734-2737.
175. Niu, M. T., L. B. Polish, B. H. Robertson, B. K. Khanna, B. A. Woodruff, C. N. Shapiro, M. A. Miller, J. D. Smith, J. K. Gedrose, M. J. Alter, H. S. Margolis, and the National Hepatitis A Investigation Team. 1992. Multi-state outbreak of hepatitis A associated with frozen strawberries. J. Infect. Dis. 166:518-524.
176. Noble, R. C., M. A. Kane, S. A. Reeves, and I. Roeckel. 1984. Posttransfusion hepatitis A in a neonatal intensive care unit. JAMA 252:2711-2715.
177. Oba, I. T., A. M. Spina, C. P. Saraceni, M. F. Lemos, R. Senhoras, R. C. Moreira, and C. F. Granato. 2000. Detection of hepatitis A antibodies by ELISA usina saliva as clinical samples. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 42:197-200.
178. Ochnio, J. J., D. W. Scheifele, M. Ho, and L. A. Mitchell. 1997. New. ultrasensitive enzyme immunoassay for detecting vaccine- and disease-induced hepatitis A virus-specific immunoglobulin G in saliva. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:98-101.
179. Osterholm, M. T., R. J. Kantor, D. W. Bradley, W. N. Hall, D. P. Francis, H. C. Aaron, J. W. Washburn, and D. Velde. 1980. Immunoglobulin M-specific serologic testing in an outbreak of foodborne viral hepatitis, type A. Am. J. Epidemiol. 112:8-16.
180. Ostermayr, R., K. Hehn, V. Gauss-Muller, E. L. Winnacker, and F. Deinhardt. 1987. Expression of hepatitis A virus cDNA in Escherichia coli: antigenic VP1 recombinant protein. J. Virol. 61:3645-3647.
181. Pana, A., M. Divizia, P. de Filippis, and A. di Napoli. 1987. Isolation of hepatitis A virus from polluted river water on FRP/3 cells. Lancet ii:1328.
182. Paul, A. V., H. Tada, K. von der Helm, T. Wissel, R. Kiehn, E. Wimmer, and F. Deinhardt. 1987. The entire nucleotide sequence of the genome of human hepatitis A virus (isolate MBB). Virus Res. 8:153-171.
183. Perry, K. R., J. V. Parry, E. M. Vandervelde, and P. P. Mortimer. 1992. The detection in urine specimens of IgG and IgM antibodies to hepatitis A and hepatitis B core antigens. J. Med. Virol. 38:265-270.
184. Pina, S., M. Buti, R. Jardi, P. Clemente-Casares, J. Jofre, and R. Girones. 2001. Genetic analysis of hepatitis A virus strains recovered from the environment and from patients with acute hepatitis. J. Gen. Virol. 82:2955-2963.
185. Ping, L. H., R. W. Jansen, J. T. Stapleton, J. I. Cohen, and S. M. Lemon. 1988. Identification of an immunodominant antigenic site involving the capsid protein VP3 of hepatitis A virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85: 8281-8285.
186. Ping, L. H., and S. M. Lemon. 1992. Antigenic structure of human hepatitis A virus defined by analysis of escape mutants selected against murine monoclonal antibodies. J. Virol. 66:2208-2216.
187. Pinto, M. A., R. S. Marchevsky, M. L. Baptista, M. A. de Lima, M. Pelajo-Machado, C. L. Vitral, C. F. Kubelka, J. W. Pissurno, M. S. Franca, H. G. Sehatzmayr, and A. M. Gaspar. 2002. Experimental hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection in Callithrix jacchus: early detection of HAV antigen and viral fate. Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 53:413-420.
188. Poddar, U., B. R. Thapa, A. Prasad, and K. Singh. 2002. Changing spectrum of sporadic acute viral hepatitis in Indian children. J. Trop. Pediatr. 48: 210-213.
189. Polish, L. B., B. H. Robertson, B. Khanna, K. Krawczynski, J. Spelbring, F. Olson, and C. N. Shapiro. 1999. Excretion of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in adults: comparison of immunologic and molecular detection methods and relationship between HAV positivity and infectivity in tamarins. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37:3615-3617.
190. Poonawagul, U., S. Warintrawat, R. Snithhan, S. Kitisriwarapoj, V. Chaiyakunt, and H. M. Foy. 1995. Outbreak of hepatitis A in a college traced to contaminated water reservoir in cafeteria. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 26:705-708.
191. Poovorawan, Y., A. Theamboonlers, V. Chongsrisawat, P. Jantaradsamee, S. Chutsirimongkol, and P. Tangkijvanich. 2005. Clinical features and molecular characterization of hepatitis A virus outbreak in a child care center in Thailand. J. Clin. Virol. 32:24-28.
192. Provost, P. J., B. S. Wolanski, W. J. Miller, O. L. Ittensohn, W. J. McAlcer, and M. R. Hilleman. 1975. Physical, chemical and morphologic dimensions of human hepatitis A virus strain CR326 (38578). Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 148:532-539.
193. Provost, P. J., and M. R. Hilleman. 1979. Propagation of human hepatitis A virus in cell culture in vitro. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 160:213-221.
194. Purcell, R. H., D. C. Wong, Y. Moritsugu, J. L. Dienstag, J. A. Routenberg, and J. D. Boggs. 1976. A microtiter solid phase radioimmunoassay for hepatitis A antigen and antibody. J. Immunol. 116:349-356.
195. Ramsay, C. N., and P. A. Upton. 1989. Hepatitis A and frozen raspberries. Lancet i:43-44.
196. Randhawa, J. S., and A. J. Easton. 1999. Demystified. DNA nucleotide sequencing. Mol. Pathol. 52:117-124.
197. Reid, T. M., and H. G. Robinson. 1987. Frozen raspberries and hepatitis A. Epidemiol. Infect. 98:109-112.
198. Rezende, G., A. M. Roque-Afonso, D. Samuel, M. Gigon, E. Nicand, V. Ferre, E. Dussaix, H. Bismuth, and C. Feray. 2003. Viral and clinical factors associated with the fulminant course of hepatitis A infection. Hepatology 38:613-618.
199. Robertson, B. H., B. Khanna, O. V. Nainan, and H. S. Margolis. 1991. Epidemiologic patterns of wild-type hepatitis A virus determined by genetic variation. J. Infect. Dis. 163:286-292.
200. Robertson, B. H., R. W. Jansen, B. Khanna, A. Totsuka, O. V. Nainan, G. Siegl, A. Widell, H. S. Margolis, S. Isomura, K. Ito, T. Ishizu, Y. Moritsugu, and S. M. Lemon. 1992. Genetic relatedness of hepatitis A virus strains recovered from different geographical regions. J. Gen. Virol. 73:1365-1377.
201. Robertson, B. H., X. Y. Jia, H. Tian, H. S. Margolis, D. F. Summers, and E. Ehrenfeld. 1992. Serological approaches to distinguish immune response to hepatitis A vaccine and natural infection. Vaccine 10(Suppl. 1):S106-S109.
202. Robertson, B. H., X. Y. Jia, H. Tian, H. S. Margolis, D. F. Summers, and E. Ehrenfeld. 1993. Antibody response to nonstructural proteins of hepatitis A virus following infection. J. Med. Virol. 40:76-82.
203. Robertson, B. H., F. Averhoff, T. L. Cromeans, X. H. Han, B. Khoprasert, O. V. Nainan, J. Rosenberg, L. Paikoff, E. DeBess, C. N. Shapiro, and H. S. Margolis. 2000. Genetic relatedness of hepatitis A virus isolates during a community-wide outbreak. J. Med. Virol. 62:144-150.
204. Rosenblum, L. S., I. R. Mirkin, D. T. Allen, S. Safford, and S. C. Hadler. 1990. A multifocal outbreak of hepatitis A traced to commercially distributed lettuce. Am. J. Public Health 80:1075-1079.
205. Rosenblum, L. S., M. E. Villarino, O. V. Nainan, M. E. Melish, S. C. Hadler, P. P. Pinsky, W. R. Jarvis, C. E. Ott, and H. S. Margolis. 1991. Hepatitis A outbreak in a neonatal intensive care unit: risk factors for transmission and evidence of prolonged viral excretion among preterm infants. J. Infect. Dis. 164:476-482.
206. Sanchez, G., R. M. Pinto, H. Vanaclocha, and A. Bosch. 2002. Molecular characterization of hepatitis A virus isolates from a transcontinental shellfish-borne outbreak. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40:4148-4155.
207. Sanchez, G., A. Bosch, and R. M. Pinto. 2003. Genome variability and capsid structural constraints of hepatitis A virus. J. Virol. 77:452-459.
208. Sanchez, G., C. Villena, A. Bosch, and R. M. Pinto. 2004. Hepatitis A virus: molecular detection and typing. Methods Mol. Biol. 268:103-114.
209. Sanger, F., S. Nicklen, and A. R. Coulson. 1977. DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 74:5463-5467.
210. Schiodt, F. V., E. Atillasoy, A. Obaid Shakil, E. R. Schiff, C. Caldwell, K. V. Kowdley, R. Stribling, J. S. Crippen, S. Flamm, K. A. Somberg, H. Rosen, T. M. McCashland, J. E. Hay, W. M. Lee, and the Acute Liver Failure Study Group. 1999. Etiology and outcome for 295 patients with acute liver failure in the United States. Liver Transplant. Surg. 5:29-34.
211. Schultheiss, T., Y. Y. Kusov, and V. Gauss-Muller. 1994. Proteinase 3C of hepatitis A virus (HAV) cleaves the HAV polyprotein P2-P3 al all sites including VP1/2A and 2A/2B. Virology 198:275-281.
212. Schwab, K. J., R. De Leon, and M. D. Sobsey. 1995. Concentration and purification of beef extract mock eluates from water samples for the detection of enteroviruses, hepatitis A virus, and Norwalk virus by reverse transcription-PCR. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:531-537.
213. Seelig, R., G. Pott, H. P. Seelig, H. Liehr, P. Metzger, and R. Waldherr. 1984. Virus-binding activity of fibronectin: masking of hepatitis A virus. J. Virol. Methods 8:335-347.
214. Shao, Z. J., D. Z. Xu, Y. P. Yan, J. H. Li, J. X. Zhang, Z. Y. Zhang, and B. R. Pan. 2003. Detection of anti-HAV antibody with dot immunogold filtration assay. World J. Gastroenterol. 9:1508-1511.
215. Shapiro, C. N., P. J. Coleman, G. M. McQuillan, M. J. Alter, and H. S. Margolis. 1992. Epidemiology of hepatitis A: seroepidemiology and risk groups in the USA. Vaccine 10(Suppl. 1):S59-S62.
216. Shouval, D., Y. Ashur, R. Adler, J. A. Lewis, M. E. Armstrong, J. P. Davide, B. McGuire, B. Kuter, L. Brown, and W. Miller. 1993. Single and booster responses to an inactivated hepatitis A vaccine: comparisons with immune globulin prophylaxis. Vaccine 11(Suppl. 1):S9-S14.
217. Siegl, G., J. deChastonay, and G. Kronauer. 1984. Propagation and assay of hepatitis A virus in vitro. J. Virol. Methods 9:53-67.
218. Sjogren, M. H., H. Tanno, O. Fay, S. Sileoni, B. D. Cohen, D. S. Burke, and R. J. Feighny. 1987. Hepatitis A virus in stool during clinical relapse. Ann. Intern. Med. 106:221-226.
219. Sjogren, M. H., C. H. Hoke, L. N. Binn, K. H. Eckels, D. R. Dubois, L. Lyde, A. Tsuchida, S. Oaks, Jr., R. Marchwicki, W. Lednar, R. Chloupek, J. Ticehurst, and W. H. Bancroft. 1991. Immunogenicity of an inactivated hepatitis A vaccine. Ann. Intern. Med. 114:470-471.
220. Skinhoj, P., F. Mikkelsen, and F. B. Hollinger. 1977. Hepatitis A in Greenland: importance of specific antibody testing in epidemiologic surveillance. Am. J. Epidemiol. 105:140-147.
221. Skinhoj, P., L. R. Mathiesen, P. Kiryger, and A. M. Moller. 1981. Faeccel excretion of hepatitis A virus in patients with symptomatic hepatitis A infection. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 16:1057-1059.
222. Smith, P. F., J. C. Grabau, A. Werzberger, R. A. Gunn, H. R. Rolka, S. F. Kondracki, R. J. Gallo, and D. L. Morse. 1997. The role of young children in a community-wide outbreak of hepatitis A. Epidemiol. Infect. 118:243-252.
223. Sobsey, M. D., S. E. Oglesbee, and D. A. Wait. 1985. Evaluation of methods for concentrating hepatitis A virus from drinking water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 50:1457-1463.
224. Soucie, J. M., B. H. Robertson, B. P. Bell, K. A. McCaustland, and B. L. Evatt. 1998. Hepatitis A virus infections associated with clotting factor concentrate in the United States. Transfusion 38:573-579.
225. Staes, C. J., T. L. Schlenker, I. Risk, K. G. Cannon, H. Harris, A. T. Pavia, C. N. Shapiro, and B. P. Bell. 2000. Sources of infection among persons with acute hepatitis A and no identified risk factors during a sustained community-wide outbreak. Pediatrics 106:E54.
226. Stahlberg, A., J. Hakansson, X. Xian, H. Semh, and M. Kuhista. 2004. Properties of the reverse transcription reaction in mRNA quantification. Clin. Chem. 50:509-515.
227. Stahlberg, A., M. Kubista, und M. Pfaf H. 2004. Comparison of reverse transcriptases in gene expression analysis. Clin. Chem. 50:1678-1680.
228. Stapleton, J. T., and S. M. Lemon. 1987. Neutralization escape mutants define a dominant immunogenic neutralization site on hepatitis A virus. J. Virol. 61:491-498.
229. Stapleton, J. T., D. K. Lauge, J. W. LeDuc, L. N. Binn, R. W. Jansen, and S. M. Lemon. 1991. The role of secretory immunity in hepatitis A virus infection. J. Infect. Dis. 163:7-11.
230. Stapleton, J. T. 1995. Host immune response to hepatitis A virus. J. Infect. Dis. 171-S9-S14.
231. Steffen, R., M. A. Kane, C. N. Shapiro, N. Billo, K. J. Schoellhorn, and P. van Damme. 1994. Epidemiology and prevention of hepatitis A in travelers. JAMA 272:883-889.
232. Stene-Johansen, K., K. Skaug, H. Blystad, B. Grinde, et al. 1998. A unique hepatitis A virus strain caused an epidemic in Norway associated with intravenous drug abuse. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 30:35-38.
233. Stewart, D. R., T. S. Morris, R. H. Purcell, and S. U. Emerson. 1997. Detection of antibodies to the nonstructural 3C proteinase of hepatitis A virus. J. Infect. Dis. 176:593-601.
234. Strazynski, M., J. Kramer, and B. Becker. 2002. Thermal inactivation of poliovirus type 1 in water, milk and yoghurt. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 74:73-78.
235. Sundkvist, T., C. Aitken, G. Duckworth, and D. Jeffries. 1997. Outbreak of acute hepatitis A among homosexual men in East London. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 29:211-212.
236. Sunen, E., and M. D. Sobsey. 1999. Recovery and detection of enterovirus, hepatitis A virus and Norwalk virus in hardshell clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) by RT-PCR methods. J. Virol. Methods 77:179-187.
237. Sunen, E., N. Casas, B. Moreno, and C. Zigorraga. 2004. Comparison of two methods for the detection of hepatitis A virus in clam samples (Tapes spp.) by reverse transcription-nested PCR. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 91:147-154.
238. Szmuness, W., J. L. Dienstag, R. H. Purcell, E. J. Harley, C. E. Stevens, and D. C. Wong. 1976. Distribution of antibody to hepatitis A antigen in urban adult populations. N. Engl. J. Med. 295:755-759.
239. Tallo, T., H. Norder, V. Tefanova, K. Ott, V. Ustina, T. Prukk, O. Solomonova, J. Schmidt, K. Zilmer, L. Priimagi, and T. Krispin. 2003. Sequential changes in hepatitis A virus genotype distribution in Estonia during 1994 to 2001. J. Med. Virol. 70:187-193.
240. Tapp, I., L. Malmberg, E. Rennel, M. Wik, and A. C. Syvanen. 2000. Homogeneous scoring of single-nucleotide polymorphisms: comparison of the 5′-nuclease TaqMan assay and Molecular Beacon probes. BioTechniques 28:732-738.
241. Tassopoulos, N. C., G. J. Papaevangelou, J. R. Ticehurst, and R. H. Purcell. 1986. Fecal excretion of Greek strains of hepatitis A virus in patients with hepatitis A and in experimentally infected chimpanzees. J. Infect. Dis. 154:231-237.
242. Taylor, M. B. 1997. Molecular epidemiology of South African strains of hepatitis A virus: 1982-1996. J. Med. Virol. 51:273-279.
243. Ticehurst, J. R., V. R. Racaniello, B. M. Baroudy, D. Baltimore, R. H. Purcell, and S. M. Feinstone. 1983. Molecular cloning and characterization of hepatitis A virus cDNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80:5885-5889.
244. Ticehurst, J. C., J. I. Cohen, and R. H. Purcell. 1988. Analysis of molecular sequences demonstrates that hepatitis A virus (HAV) is a unique picornavirus, p. 33-35. In A. J. Zuckerman (ed.), Viral hepatitis and liver disease. Alan R. Liss, New York, N.Y.
245. Tjon, G. M. S., C. J. Wijkmans, R. A. Coutinho, A. G. Koek, J. A. R. van den Hoeka, A. C. A. P. Leenders, P. M. Schneeberger, and S. M. Bruisten. 2005. Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis A in Noord-Brabant, The Netherlands. J. Clin. Virol. 32:128-136.
246. Tsai, Y. L., M. D. Sobsey, L. R. Sangermano, and C. J. Palmer. 1993. Simple method of concentrating enteroviruses and hepatitis A virus from sewage and ocean water for rapid detection by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:3488-3491.
247. Tsai, Y. L., B. Tran, L. R. Sangermano, and C. J. Palmer. 1994. Detection of poliovirus, hepatitis A virus, and rotavirus from sewage and ocean water by triplex reverse transcriptase PCR. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:2400-2407.
248. Tsarev, S. A., S. U. Emerson, M. S. Balayan, J. Ticehurst, and R. H. Purcell. 1991. Simian hepatitis A virus (HAV) strain AGM 27: comparison of genome structure and growth in cell culture with other HAV strains. J. Gen. Virol. 72:1677-1683.
249. Van Steenbergen, J. E., V. G. Tjon, A. v. d. Hoek, A. Koek, R. A. Coutinho, and S. M. Bruisten. 2004. Two years prospective collection of molecular and epidemiological data shows limited spread ol hepatitis A virus outside risk groups in Amsterdam. 2000-2002. J. Infect. Dis. 189:471-482.
250. Vento, S., T. Garofano, C. Renzini, F. Cainelli, F. Casali, G. Ghironzi, T. Ferraro, and E. Concia. 1998. Fulminant hepatitis associated with hepatitis A virus superinfection in patients with chronic hepatitis C. N. Engl. J. Med. 338:286-290.
251. Villar, L. M., E. Lampe, A. Meyer, and A. M. Gaspar. 2004. Genetic variability of hepatitis A virus isolates in Rio de Janeiro: implications for the vaccination of school children. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 37:1779-1787.
252. Vong, S., A. E. Fiore, D. O. Haight, J. Li, N. Borgsmiller, W. Kuhnert, F. Pinero, K. Boaz, T. Badsgard, C. Mancini, O. V. Nainan, S. Wiersma, and B. P. Bell. 2005. Vaccination in the county jail as a strategy to reach high risk adults during a community-based hepatitis A outbreak among methamphetamine drug users. Vaccine 23:1021-1028.
253. Wang, Z. Q., L. Ma, H. Gao, and X. G. Dong. 1986. Propagation of hepatitis A virus in human diploid fibroblast cells. Acta Virol. 30:463-467.
254. Wang, C. H., S. Y. Tschen, U. Heinricy, M. Weber, and B. Flehmig. 1996. Immune response to hepatitis A virus capsid proteins after infection. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:707-713.
255. Wasley, A., T. Samandari, T., and B. P. Bell. 2005. Incidence of hepatitis A in the United States in the era of vaccination. JAMA 294:194-201.
256. Wattanasri, N., K. Ruchusatsawat, and S. Wattanasri. 2005. Phylogenetic analysis of hepatitis A virus in Thailand. J. Med. Virol. 75:1-7.
257. Weber, D. J., S. L. Barbee, M. D. Sobsey, and W. A. Rutala. 1999. The effect of blood on the antiviral activity of sodium hypochlorite, a phenolic, and a quaternary ammonium compound. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 20: 821-827.
258. Weinberg, M., J. Hopkins, L. Farrington, L. Gresham, M. Ginsberg, and B. P. Bell. 2004. Hepatitis A in Hispanic children who live along the United States-Mexico border: the role of international travel and food-borne exposures. Pediatrics 114:e68-e73.
259. Weitz, M., B. M. Baroudy, W. L. Maloy, J. R. Ticehurst, and R. H. Purcell. 1986. Detection of a genome-linked protein (VPg) of hepatitis A virus and its comparison with other picornaviral VPgs. J. Virol. 60:124-130.
260. Wheeler, C., T. Vogt, G. L. Armstrong, G. Vaughan, A. Weltman, O. V. Nainan, V. Dato, G. Xia, K. Waller, J. Amon, T. M. Lee, A. Highhaugh-Battle, C. Hembree, S. Evenson, M. A. Ruta, I. T. Williams, A. Fiore, and B. P. Bell. 2005. An outbreak of hepatitis A associated with green onions. N. Engl. J. Med. 353:890-897.
261. Wiedmann, M., S. Boehm, W. Schumacher, C. Swysen, and M. Zauke. 2003. Evaluation of three commercial assays for the detection of hepatitis A virus. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 22:129-130.
262. Xia, G., Y. Yi, K. Guo, and H. Tian. 1997. Comparison of the Chinese LJ strain structural gene with HM175, MBB, LA strains and the expression of hepatitis A virus antigen by LJ/HM175 recombinant vaccinia virus. Zhonghua Shi Yan He Lin Chuang Bing Du Xue Za Zhi 11:208-211.
263. Yao, G. 1991. Clinical spectrum and natural history of viral hepatitis A in a 1988 Shanghai epidemic. p. 76-78. In F. B. Hollinger, S. M. Lemon, and H. S. Margolis (ed.). Viral hepatitis and liver disease. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, Md.
264. Yotsuyanagi, H., S. Iino, K. Koike, K. Yasuda, K. Hino, and K. Kurokawa. 1993. Duration of viremia in human hepatitis A viral infection as determined by polymerase chain reaction. J. Med. Virol. 40:35-38.
265. Yotsuyanagi, H., K. Koike, K. Yasuda, K. Moriya, Y. Shintani, H. Fujie, K. Kurokawa, and S. Iino. 1996. Prolonged fecal excretion of hepatitis A virus in adult patients with hepatitis A as determined by polymerase chain reaction. Hepatology 24:10-13.
266. Zhou, Y. J., M. K. Estes, X. Jiang, and T. G. Metcalf. 1991. Concentration and detection of hepatitis A virus and rotavirus from shellfish by hybridization tests. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57:2963-2968.