Strategies to prevent antimicrobial resistance in the intensive care unit

Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 33, Issue 8, 2005, Pages 1845-1853

  Kollef, Marin H ^b   Micek, Scott T ^a  

^a BARNES JEWISH HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b Pulmonary and Critical Care Division   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMINOGLYCOSIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; CARBAPENEM; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; GENTAMICIN; GLYCOPEPTIDE; MONOBACTAM DERIVATIVE; OXAZOLIDINONE DERIVATIVE; PENICILLIN G; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; TRIMETHOPRIM;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; BIOFILM; CLINICAL PROTOCOL; COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; DRUG CLASSIFICATION; HOSPITAL HYGIENE; HUMAN; INFECTION CONTROL; INFECTION RISK; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; LENGTH OF STAY; MEDLINE; PATHOGENESIS; PHARMACODYNAMICS; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SHORT COURSE THERAPY; SHORT SURVEY;

EID: 23844497745     PISSN: 00903493     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000171849.04952.79     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. Goldmann DA, Weinstein RA, Wenzel RP, et al: Strategies to prevent and control the emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms in hospitals. A challenge to hospital leadership. JAMA 1996; 275:234-240
2. Carlet J, Ben Ali A, Chalfine A: Epidemiology and control of antibiotic resistance in the intensive care unit. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2004; 17:309-316
3. Vincent JL, Bihari DJ, Suter PM, et al: The prevalence of nosocomial infection in intensive care units in Europe: Results of the European Prevalence of Infection in Intensive Care (EPIC) Study: EPIC International Advisory Committee. JAMA 1995; 274: 639-644
4. Waldvogel FA: New resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 556-557
5. Hanberger H, Garcia-Rodriguez JA, Gobernado M, et al: Antibiotic susceptibility among aerobic Gram-negative Bacilli in intensive care units in 5 European countries. JAMA 1999; 281:67-71
6. Quinn JP: Clinical problems posed by multiresistant nonfermenting Gram-negative pathogens. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27: S117-S124
7. Jones RN, Sader HS, Beach ML: Contemporary in vitro spectrum of activity summary for antimicrobial agents tested against 18569 strains non-fermentative Gram-negative bacilli isolated in the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1997-2001). Int JAntimicrob Agents 2003; 22:551-556
8. Livermore DM: Bacterial resistance: Origins, epidemiology, and impact. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 36:S11-S23
9. Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H, et al: Surviving Sepsis Campaign Management Guidelines Committee. Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med 2004; 32:858-873
10. Schlaes DM, Gerding DN, John Jr JF, et al: Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America and Infectious Diseases Society of America Joint Committee on the Prevention of Antimicrobial Resistance: Guidelines for the prevention of antimicrobial resistance in hospitals. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25:584-599
11. Neuhauser MM, Weinstein RA, Rydman R, et al: Antibiotic resistance among Gram-negative bacilli in US intensive care units: Implications for fluoroquinolone use. JAMA 2003; 289:885-888
12. Archibald L, Phillips L, Monnet D, et al: Antimicrobial resistance in isolates from inpatients and outpatients in the United States: Increasing importance of the intensive care unit. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24: 211-215
13. Sieradzki K, Roberts RB, Haber SW, et al: The development of Vancomycin resistance in a patient with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. N Engl J Med 1999; 340:517-523
14. Smith TL, Pearson ML, Wilcox KR, et al: Emergence of Vancomycin resistance in STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS. N Engl J Med 1999; 340:493-501
15. Van Looveren M, Goossens H: Antimicrobial resistance of Acinetobacter spp. in Europe. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004; 10:684-704
16. Canton R, Coque TM, Baquero F: Multiresistant Gram-negative bacilli: From epidemics to endemics. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2003; 16:315-325
17. Linden PK, Kusne S, Coley K, et al: Use of parenteral colistin for the treatment of serious infection due to antimicrobial-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 11:154-160
18. Livermore DM, Yuan M: Antibiotic resistance and production of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases amongst Klebsiella spp from intensive care units in Europe. J Antimicrob Chemother 1996; 38:409-424
19. Cartolano GL, Cheron M, Benabid D, et al: Association of Hospital Bacteriologists, Virologists and Hygiene Professionals. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) with reduced susceptibility to glycopeptides (GISA) in 63 French general hospitals. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004; 10: 448-451
20. Haley RW, Bregman DA: The role of understaffing and overcrowding in recurrent outbreaks of staphylococcal infection in a neonatal special-care unit. J Infect Dis 1982; 145:875-885
21. Kollef MH, Fraser VJ: Antibiotic resistance in the intensive care unit. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134:298-314
22. Fagon JY, Chastre J, Domart Y, et al: Nosocomial pneumonia in patients receiving continuous mechanical ventilation. Prospective analysis of 52 episodes with use of a protected specimen brush and quantitative culture technique. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989; 139:877-884
23. Ortiz J, Vila MC, Soriano G, et al: Infections caused by Escherichia coli resistant to norfloxacin in hospitalized cirrhotic patients. Hepatology 1999; 29:1064-1069
24. Kaplan SL, Mason EO Jr, Barson WJ, et al: Three-year multicenter surveillance of systemic pneumococcal infections in children. Pediatrics 1998; 102:538-545
25. Edmond MB, Ober JF, Weinbaum DL, et al: Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium bacteremia: Risk factors for infection. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20:1126-1133
26. Husni RN, Goldstein LS, Arroliga AC, et al: Risk factors for an outbreak of multi-drug-resistant Acinetobacter nosocomial pneumonia among intubated patients. Chest 1999; 115:1378-1382
27. Rello J, Ausina V, Ricart M, et al: Impact of previous antimicrobial therapy on the etiology and outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 1993; 104:1230-1235
28. Kollef MH: Ventilator-associated pneumonia: A multivariate analysis. JAMA 1993; 270:1965-1970
29. Kollef MH, Silver P, Murphy DM, et al: The effect of late-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia in determining patient mortality. Chest 1995; 108:1655-1662
30. Rahal JJ, Urban C, Horn D, et al: Class restriction of cephalosporin use to control total cephalosporin resistance in nosocomial Klebsiella. JAMA 1998; 280:1233-1237
31. Meyer KS, Urban C, Eagan JA, et al: Nosocomial outbreak of Klebsiella infection resistant to late-generation cephalosporins. Ann Intern Med 1993; 119:353-358
32. Urban C, Go E, Mariano N, et al: Effect of sulbactam on infections caused by imipenem-resistant Acinetobacter calcoaceticus biotype antratus. J Infect Dis 1993; 167: 448-451
33. Trouillet JL, Chastre J, Vuagnat A, et al: Ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by potentially drug-resistant bacteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157:531-539
34. Naimi TS, LeDell KH, Como-Sabetti K, et al: Comparison of community- and health care-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. JAMA 2004; 290:2976-2984
35. Clark NM, Hershberger E, Zervosc MJ, et al: Antimicrobial resistance among Gram-positive organisms in the intensive care unit. Curr Opin Crit Care 2003; 9:403-412
36. Chastre J, Wolff M, Fagon JY, et al: Comparison of 15 vs. 8 days of antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: A randomized trial. JAMA 2003; 290: 2588-2598
37. Dennesen PJW, van der Ven AJ, Kessels AGH, et al: Resolution of infectious parameters after antimicrobial therapy in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 163:1371-1375
38. Ibrahim EH, Sherman G, Ward S, et al: The influence of inadequate antimicrobial treatment of bloodstream infections on patient outcomes in the ICU setting. Chest 2000; 118:146-155
39. Harbarth S, Fernere K, Hugonnet S, et al: Epidemiology and prognostic determinants of bloodstream infections in surgical intensive care. Arch Surg 2002; 137:1353-1359
40. Alvarez-Lerma F: Modification of empiric antibiotic treatment in patients with pneumonia acquired in the intensive care unit. Intensive Care Med 1996; 22:387-394
41. Ibrahim EH, Ward S, Sherman G, et al: Experience with a clinical guideline for the treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 2001; 29:1109-1115
42. Kollef MH: Inadequate antimicrobial treatment: An important determinant of outcome for hospitalized patients. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31:S131-S138
43. Kollef MH, Sherman G, Ward S, et al: Inadequate antimicrobial treatment of infections: A risk factor for hospital mortality among critically ill patients. Chest 1999; 115:462-474
44. Kollef MH, Ward S: The influence of mini-BAL cultures on patient outcomes: Implications for the antibiotic management of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 1998; 113:412-420
45. Rello J, Gallego M, Mariscal D, et al: The value of routine microbial investigation in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156:196-200
46. Luna CM, Vujacich P, Niederman MS, et al: Impact of BAL data on the therapy and outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 1997; 111:676-685
47. Micek ST, Lloyd AE, Ritchie DJ, et al: Pseudomonas aeruginosa bloodstream infection: Importance of appropriate initial antimicrobial treatment. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49:1306-1311
48. Dhainaut JF, Laterre PF, LaRosa S, et al: The clinical evaluation committee in a large multicenter phase 3 trial of drotrecogin alfa (activated) in patients with severe sepsis (PROWESS): role, methodology, and results. Crit Care Med 2003; 31:2291-2301
49. Harbarth S, Garbino JK, Pugin J, et al: Inappropriate initial antimicrobial therapy and its effects on survival in a clinical trial of immunomodulating therapy for severe sepsis. Am J Med 2003; 115:529-535
50. Garnacho-Montero J, Garcia-Garmendia JL, Barrero-Almodovar A, et al: Impact of adequate empirical antibiotic therapy on the outcome of patients admitted to the intensive care unit with sepsis. Crit Care Med 2003; 31:2742-2751
51. Micek ST, Isakow W, Shannon W, et al: Predictors of hospital mortality for patients with severe sepsis treated with Drotrecogin alfa (activated). Pharmacotherapy 2005; 25: 26-34
52. Jarvis WR: Handwashing - The Semmelweis lesson forgotten? Lancet 1994; 344: 1311-1312
53. Doebbeling BN, Stanley GL, Sheetz CT, et al: Comparative efficacy of alternative handwashing agents in reducing nosocomial infections in intensive care units. N Engl J Med 1992; 327:88-93
54. Pittet D, Mourouga P, Perneger TV: Compliance with handwashing in a teaching hospital. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130: 126-130
55. Zaragoza M, Sallés M, Gomez J, et al: Handwashing with soap or alcoholic solutions? A randomized clinical trial of its effectiveness. Am J Infect Control 1999; 27:258-261
56. Pittet D, Dharan S, Touveneau S, et al: Bacterial contamination of the hands of hospital staff during routine patient care. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159:821-826
57. Slaughter S, Hayden MK, Nathan C, et al: A comparison of the effect of universal use of gloves and gowns with that of glove use alone on acquisition of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in a medical intensive care unit. Ann Intern Med 1996; 125:448-456
58. Puzniak LA, Gillespie KN, Leet T, et al: A cost-benefit analysis of gown use in controlling vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus transmission: Is it worth the price? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2004; 25:418-424
59. Boyce JM, Pittet D: Guideline for Hand Hygiene in Health-Care Settings: Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the ICPAC/SHEA/APIC/ IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. MMRW Recomm Rep 2002; 51: 1-44
60. Puzniak LA, Mayfield J, Leet T, et al: Acquisition of vancomycin-resistant enterococci during scheduled antimicrobial rotation in an intensive care unit. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 15:151-715
61. LeDell K, Muto CA, Jarvis WR, et al: SHEA guideline for preventing nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2003; 24: 639-641
62. Sehulster L, Chinn RY, CDC, HICPAC: Guidelines for environmental infection control in health-care facilities. Recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC). MMWR Recomm Rep 2003; 6:1-42
63. Tarnow-Mordi WO, Hau C, Warden A, et al: Hospital mortality in relation to staff workload: A 4-year study in an adult intensive-care unit. Lancet 2000; 356:185-189
64. Joiner GA, Salisbury D, Bollin GE: Utilizing quality assurance as a tool for reducing the risk of nosocomial ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Medical Quality 1996; 11:100-103
65. Kelleghan SI, Salemi C, Padilla S, et al: An effective continuous quality improvement approach to the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Infect Control 1993; 21:322-330
66. Boyce JM, White RL, Spruill EY, et al: Cost-effective application of the Centers for Disease Control Guideline for Prevention of Nosocomial Pneumonia. Am J Infect Control 1985; 13:228-232
67. Gaynes RP, Solomon S: Improving hospital-acquired infection rates: The CDC experience. Jt Comm J Qual Improv 1996; 22: 457-467
68. Zack JE, Garrison T, Trovillion E, et al: Effect of an education program aimed at reducing the occurrence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 2002; 30:2407-2412
69. Babcock HM, Zack JE, Garrison T, et al: An education intervention to reduce ventilator-associated pneumonia in an integrated health system. A comparison of effects. Chest 2004; 125:2224-2231
70. Eggimann P, Harbarth S, Constantin MN, et al: Impact of a prevention strategy targeted at vascular-access care on incidence of infections acquired in intensive care. Lancet 2000; 355:1864-1868
71. Bijma R, Girbes AR, Kleijer DJ, et al: Preventing central venous catheter-related infection in a surgical intensive-care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999; 20: 618-620
72. Warren DK, Zack JE, Cox MJ, et al: An educational intervention to prevent catheter-associated bloodstream infections in a nonteaching, community medical center. Crit Care Med 2003; 31:1959-1963
73. Coopersmith CM, Rebmann TL, Zack JE, et al: Effect of an education program on decreasing catheter-related bloodstream infections in the surgical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2002; 30:59-64
74. Warren DK, Zack JE, Mayfield JL, et al: The effect of an education program on the incidence of central venous catheter-associated bloodstream infection in a medical ICU. Chest 2004; 126:1612-1618
75. Thoren J-B, Kaelin RM, Jolliet P, et al: Influence of the quality of nursing on the duration of weaning from mechanical ventilation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Crit Care Med 1995; 23: 1807-1815
76. Berwick DM: Continuous improvement as an idea in healthcare. N Engl J Med 1989; 320:53-56
77. Kim PW, Harris AD, Roghmann MC, et al: Epidemiological risk factors for isolation of ceftriaxone-resistant versus -susceptible Citrobacter freundii in hospitalized patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47:2882-2887
78. Nava S, Ambrosino N, Clini E, et al: Noninvasive mechanical ventilation in the weaning of patients with respiratory failure due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128:721-728
79. Antonelli M, Conti G, Rocco M, et al: A comparison of noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation and conventional mechanical ventilation in patients with acute respiratory failure. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 429-435
80. Nourdine K, Combes P, Carlton MJ, et al: Does noninvasive ventilation reduce the ICU nosocomial infection risk? A prospective clinical survey. Intensive Care Med 1999; 25:567-573
81. Fuqua WC, Greenberg EP: Listening in on bacteria: Acyl-homoserine lactone signaling. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2002; 3:685-695
82. Erwin AL, VanDevanter DR: The Pseudomonas aeruginosa genome: How do we use it to develop strategies for the treatment of patients with cystic fibrosis and Pseudomonas infections? Curr Opin Pulm Med 2002; 8:547-551
83. Donlan RM, Costerton JW: Biofilms: Survival mechanisms of clinically relevant microorganisms. Clin Microbiol Rev 2002; 15: 167-193
84. Trautner BW, Darouiche RO: Catheter-associated infections: Pathogenesis affects prevention. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164: 842-850
85. Saint S, Savel RH, Matthay MA: Enhancing the safety of critically ill patients by reducing urinary and central venous catheter-related infections. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 165:1475-1479
86. Zabramski JM, Whiting D, Darouiche RO, et al: Efficacy of antimicrobial-impregnated external ventricular drain catheters: A prospective, randomized, controlled trial. J Neurosurg 2003; 98:725-730
87. Darouiche RO, Raad II, Heard SO, et al: A comparison of two antimicrobial-impregnated central venous catheters. N Engl J Med 1999; 340:1-8
88. Shinefield H, Black S, Fattom A, et al: Use of a Staphylococcus aureus conjugate vaccine in patients receiving hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 2002; 346:491-496
89. Robbins JB, Schneerson R, Horwith G, et al: Staphylococcus aureus types 5 and 8 capsular polysaccharide-protein conjugate vaccines. Am Heart J 2004; 147:593-598
90. Classen DC, Pestotnik SL, Evans RS, et al: Adverse drug events in hospitalized patients. Excess length of stay, extra costs, and attributable mortality. JAMA 1997; 277: 301-306
91. Evans RS, Classen DC, Pestotnik SL, et al: Improving empiric antibiotic selection using computer decision support. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154:878-884
92. Pestotnik SL, Classen DC, Evans RS, et al: Implementing antibiotic practice guidelines through computer-assisted decision support: Clinical and financial outcomes. Ann Mem Med 1996; 124:884-890
93. Evans RS, Pestotnik SL, Classen DC, et al: A computer-assisted management program for antibiotics and other antiinfective agents. N Engl J Med 1998; 338:232-238
94. Bailey TC, Ritchie DJ, McMullin ST, et al: A randomized, prospective evaluation of an interventional program to discontinue intravenous antibiotics at two tertiary care teaching institutions. Pharmacotherapy 1997; 17:277-281
95. Micek ST, Ward S, Fraser VJ, et al: A randomized controlled trial of an antibiotic discontinuation policy for clinically suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 2004; 125:1791-1799
96. McGowan Jr JE, Gerding DN: Does antibiotic restriction prevent resistance? New Horizons 1996; 4:370-376
97. Rifenburg RP, Paladino JA, Hanson SC, et al: Benchmark analysis of strategies hospitals use to control antimicrobial expenditures. Am J Health-System Pharmacy 1996; 53:2054-2062
98. Climo MW, Israel DS, Wong ES, et al: Hospital-wide restriction of clindamycin: Effect on the incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and cost. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128:989-995
99. Quale J, Landman D, Atwood E, et al: Experience with a hospital-wide outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Am J Infect Control 1996; 24:372-379
100. Gleason PP, Kapoor WN, Stone RA, et al: Medical outcomes and antimicrobial costs with the use of the American Thoracic Society guidelines for outpatients with community-acquired pneumonia. JAMA 1997; 278:32-39
101. Ailani RK, Agastya G, Ailani RK, et al: Doxycycline is a cost-effective therapy for hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Inter Med 1999; 159: 266-270
102. McNulty C, Logan M, Donald IP et al: Successful control of Clostridium difficile infection in an elderly care unit through use of a restrictive antibiotic policy. J Antimicrob Chemotherapy 1997; 40:707-711
103. Richards MJ, Edwards JR, Culver DH, et al: Nosocomial infections in medical intensive care units in the United States. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. Crit Care Med 1999; 27:887-892
104. Shorr AF, Sherner JH, Jackson WL, et al: Invasive approaches to the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia: A meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 2005; 33:46-53
105. Singh N, Rogers P, Atwood CW, et al: Short-course empiric antibiotic therapy for patients with pulmonary infiltrates in the intensive care unit. A proposed solution for indiscriminate antibiotic prescription. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162:505-511
106. Wade JC: Antibiotic therapy for the granulocytopenic cancer patient: Combination therapy vs. monotherapy. Rev Infect Dis 1989; 11:S1572-S1581
107. Paul M, Benuri-Silbiger I, Soares-Weiser K, et al: Beta-lactam monotherapy versus beta-lactam-aminoglycoside combination therapy for sepsis in immunocompetent patients: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. BMJ 2004; 328:(7441): 668
108. Paul M, Soares-Wiser K, Leibovici L: Beta-lactam monotherapy versus beta-lactam-aminoglycoside combination therapy for fever with neutropenia: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2003; 326(7399): 1111
109. Niederman MS: Is "crop rotation" of antibiotics the solution to a "resistant" problem in the ICU? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156:1029-1031
110. Bergstrom CT, Lo M, Lipsitch M: Ecological theory suggests that antimicrobial cycling will not reduce antimicrobial resistance in hospitals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:13285-13290
111. Gruson D, Hilbert G, Vargas F, et al: Rotation and restricted use of antibiotics in a medical intensive care unit. Impact on the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by antibiotic-resistant gram-negative bacteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162:837-843
112. Gruson D, Hilbert G, Vargas F, et al: Strategy of antibiotic rotation: Long-term effect on incidence and susceptibilities of Gram-negative bacilli responsible for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 2003; 31:1908-1914
113. Raymond DP, Pelletier SJ, Crabtree TD, et al: Impact of a rotating empiric antibiotic schedule on infectious mortality in an intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2001; 29: 1101-1108
114. Hughes MG, Evans L, Chong TW, et al: Effect of an intensive care unit rotating empiric antibiotic schedule on the development of hospital-acquired infection on the non-intensive care unit ward. Crit Care Med 2004; 32:53-60
115. Warren DK, Hill HA, Merz LR, et al: Cycling empirical antimicrobial agents to prevent emergence of antimicrobial-resistant Gram-negative bacteria among intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med 2004; 32: 2450-2456
116. Sirvent JM, Torres A, El-Ebiary M, et al: A protective effect of intravenously administered cefuroxime against nosocomial pneumonia in patients with structural coma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155: 1729-1734
117. Classen DC, Evans RS, Pestotnik SL, et al: The timing of prophylactic administration of antibiotics and the risk of surgical wound infection. N Engl J Med 1992; 326:281-286
118. D'Amico R, Pifferi S, Leonetti C, et al: Effectiveness of antibiotic prophylaxis in critically ill adult patients: Systemic review of randomized controlled trials. BMJ 1998; 316:1275-1285
119. Krueger WA, Lenhart FP, Neeser G, et al: Influence of combined intravenous and topical antibiotic prophylaxis on the incidence of infections, organ dysfunctions, and mortality in critically ill surgical patients: A prospective, stratified, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166:1029-1037
120. de Jonge E, Schultz M, Spanjaard L, et al: Effects of selective decontamination of the digestive tract on mortality and acquisition of resistant bacteria in intensive care: A randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2003; 362:1011-1016
121. Gastinne H, Wolff M, Delatour F, et al: A controlled trial in intensive care units of selective decontamination of the digestive tract with nonabsorbable antibiotics. N Engl J Med 1992; 326:594-599
122. Hammond JMJ, Potgieter PD: Long-term effects of selective decontamination on antimicrobial resistance. Crit Care Med 1995; 23:637-645
123. Brun-Buisson C, Legrand P, Rauss A, et al: Intestinal decontamination for control of nosocomial multiresistant Gram-negative bacilli. Study of an outbreak in an intensive care unit. Ann Intern Med 1989; 110:873-881
124. Bonten MJ, Kollef MH, Hall JB: Risk factors for ventilator-associated pneumonia: From epidemiology to patient management. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38:1141-1149
125. Talan DA, Stamm WE, Hooton TM, et al: Comparison of ciprofloxacin (7 days) and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (14 days) for acute uncomplicated pyelonephritis in women: A randomized trial. JAMA 2000; 283:1583-1590
126. Dunbar LM, Wunderink RG, Habib MP, et al: High-dose, short-course levofloxacin for community-acquired pneumonia: A new treatment paradigm. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37:752-760
127. Gibot S, Cravoisy A, Levy B, et al: Soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells and the diagnosis of pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2004; 350:451-458
128. Gibot S, Kolopp-Sarda MN, Bene MC, et al: Plasma level of a triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1: Its diagnostic accuracy in patients with suspected sepsis. Ann Intern Med 2004; 141:9-15
129. American Thoracic Society, Infectious Diseases Society of America: Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 15:388-416
130. Viviani M, Silvestri L, van Saene HK, et al: Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines: Selective decontamination of the digestive tract still neglected. Crit Care Med 2005; 33:462-463
131. Benko AS, Cappelletty DM, Kruse JA, et al: Continuous infusion versus intermittent administration of ceftazidime in critically ill patients with suspected Gram-negative infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40:691-695
132. Boselli E, Breilh D, Duflo F, et al: Steady-state plasma and intrapulmonary concentrations of cefepime administered in continuous infusion in critically ill patients with severe pneumonia. Crit Care Med 2003; 31: 2102-2106
133. Wysocki M, Delatour F, Faurisson F, et al: Continuous versus intermittant infusion of vancomycin in severe Staphylococcal infections: Prospective multicenter randomized study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45:2460-2467
134. Lipman J, Wallis SC, Rickard C: Low plasma cefepime levels in critically ill septic patients: Pharmacokinetic modeling indicates improved troughs with revised dosing. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43: 2559-2561
135. Moore RD, Lietman PS, Smith CR: Clinical response to aminoglycoside therapy: The importance of peak concentration to minimal inhibitory concentration. J Infect Dis 1987; 155:93-99
136. Blaser J, Stone BB, Groner MC, et al: Comparative study with enoxacin and netilmicin in a pharmacodynamic model to determine the importance of ratio of peak concentration to MIC for bactericidal activity and emergence of resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1987; 31: 1054-1060
137. Verpooten GA, Giuliano RA, Verbist L, et al: Once-daily dosing decreases renal accumulation of gentamicin and netilmicin. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1989; 45:22-27
138. Thomas JK, Forrest A, Bhavnani SM, et al: Pharmacodynamic evaluation of factors associated with the development of bacterial resistance in acutely ill patients during therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42:521-527
139. Schentag JJ, Gilliland KK, Paladino JA: What have we learned from pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic theories? Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32:S39-S46
140. Rello J, Vidaur L, Sandiumenge A et al: De-escalation therapy in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 2004; 32:2183-2190