Nicotine use in schizophrenia: The self medication hypotheses

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

Volumn 29, Issue 6, 2005, Pages 1021-1034

  Kumari, Veena ^a   Postma, Peggy ^b  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF EAST ANGLIA   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Antipsychotics; Cigarette smoking; Cognition; Eye movements; Genes; Nicotine; P50 gating; Prepulse inhibition of the startle response; Schizophrenia; Sensory Gating; Side effects; Symptoms

Indexed keywords

ALKALOID DERIVATIVE; ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENT; CLOZAPINE; HALOPERIDOL; MUSCARINE; NEUROTRANSMITTER; NICOTINE; NICOTINIC RECEPTOR; PROTEIN P50; PROTEIN SUBUNIT;

AKATHISIA; ATTENTION; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BEHAVIOR; CIGARETTE SMOKING; CLINICAL FEATURE; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG MECHANISM; FAMILY HISTORY; HUMAN; MEMORY; MEMORY DISORDER; MENTAL DISEASE; MOLECULAR INTERACTION; MOTOR DYSFUNCTION; NONHUMAN; PARKINSONISM; PREPULSE INHIBITION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN LOCALIZATION; REVIEW; SACCADIC EYE MOVEMENT; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SELF MEDICATION; SENSORY DYSFUNCTION; SIDE EFFECT; SMOKING; SMOOTH PURSUIT EYE MOVEMENT; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME;

ANIMALS; HUMANS; NICOTINE; NICOTINIC AGONISTS; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SCHIZOPHRENIC PSYCHOLOGY; SELF MEDICATION;

EID: 23244437754     PISSN: 01497634     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.02.006     Document Type: Review

References (183)

1. J.B. Acri, N.E. Grunberg, and D.E. Morse Effects of nicotine on the acoustic startle reflex amplitude in rats Psychopharmacology 104 2 1991 244 248
2. J.B. Acri, D.E. Morse, E.J. Popke, and N.E. Grunberg Nicotine increases sensory gating measured as inhibition of the acoustic startle reflex in rats Psychopharmacology 114 2 1994 369 374
3. L.E. Adler, E. Pachtman, R.D. Franks, M. Pecevich, M.C. Waldo, and R. Freedman Neurophysiological evidence for a defect in neuronal mechanisms involved in sensory gating in schizophrenia Biol. Psychiatry 17 1982 639 654
4. L.E. Adler, L.J. Hoffer, J. Griffith, M.C. Waldo, and R. Freedman Normalization by nicotine of deficient auditory sensory gating in the relatives of schizophrenics Biol. Psychiatry 32 7 1992 607 616
5. L.E. Adler, L.D. Hoffer, A. Wise, and R. Freedman Normalization of auditory physiology by cigarette smoking in schizophrenic patients Am. J. Psychiatry 150 12 1993 1856 1861
6. M.K. Anfang, and H.G. Pope Jr Treatment of neuroleptic-induced akathisia with nicotine patches Psychopharmacology 134 2 1997 153 156
7. A.P. Anokhin, A.C. Heath, E. Myers, A. Ralano, and S. Wood Genetic influences on prepulse inhibition of startle reflex in humans Neurosci. Lett. 353 1 2003 45 48
8. S.M. Arnfred, N.M. Lind, A.K. Hansen, and R.P. Hemmingsen Pre-pulse inhibition of the acoustic startle eye-blink in the Gottingen minipig Behav. Brain Res. 151 1-2 2004 295 301
9. J. Arnt, and T. Skarsfeldt Do novel antipsychotics have similar pharmacological characteristics? A review Neuropsychopharmacol 18 1998 63 101
10. I. Baruch, D.R. Hemsley, and J.A. Gray Latent inhibition and 'psychotic proneness' in normal subjects Person. Indiv. Diff. 9 1988 777 783
11. V.P. Bozikas, I. Niopas, A. Kafantari, F.I. Kanaze, C. Gabrieli, P. Melissidis, K. Gamvrula, K. Fokas, and A. Karavatos No increased levels of the nicotine metabolite cotinine in smokers with schizophrenia Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 29 1 2005 1 6
12. D.L. Braff Information processing and attention dysfunctions in schizophrenia Schizophr. Bull. 19 2 1993 233 259
13. D.L. Braff, and R. Freedman K.L. Davies D. Charney J.T. Coyle C. Nemeroff Endophenotypes in the Studies of the Genetics of Schizophrenia Neuropsychopharmacology: The 5th Generation of Progress 2002 Lippincott Williams and Wilkins Philladelphia 703 716
14. D.L. Braff, M.A. Geyer, and N.R. Swerdlow Human studies of prepulse inhibition of startle: normal subjects, patient groups, and pharmacological studies Psychopharmacology 156 2-3 2001 234 258
15. C.R. Breese, M.J. Marks, J. Logel, C.E. Adams, B. Sullivan, A.C. Collins, and S. Leonard Effect of smoking history on [3H] nicotine binding in human postmortem brain J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 282 1997 7 13
16. C.R. Breese, M.J. Lee, C.E. Adams, B. Sullivan, J. Logel, K.M. Gillen, M.J. Marks, A.C. Collins, and S. Leonard Abnormal regulation of high affinity nicotinic receptors in subjects with schizophrenia Neuropsychopharmacol 23 2000 351 364
17. A.E. Bullock, B.S. Slobe, V. Vázquez, and A.C. Collins Inbred mouse strains differ in the regulation of startle and prepulse inhibition of the startle response Behav. Neurosci. 111 1997 1353 1360
18. K.S. Cadenhead, N.R. Swerdlow, K. Shafer, M. Diaz, and D.L. Braff Modulation of the startle response and startle laterality in relatives of schizophrenic patients and in subjects with schizotypal personality disorder: evidence of inhibitory deficits Am. J. Psychiatry 157 2000 1660 1668
19. J.H. Callicott, M.F. Egan, V.S. Mattay, A. Bertolino, A.D. Bone, B. Verchinksi, and D.R. Weinberger Abnormal fMRI response of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in cognitively intact siblings of patients with schizophrenia Am. J. Psychiatry 160 4 2003 709 719
20. A. Castane, E. Valjent, C. Ledent, M. Parmentier, R. Maldonado, and O. Valverde Lack of CB1 cannabinoid receptors modifies nicotine behavioural responses, but not nicotine abstinence Neuropharmacology 43 5 2002 857 867
21. W.J. Chen, S.K. Liu, C.J. Chang, Y.J. Lien, Y.H. Chang, and H.G. Hwu Sustained attention deficit and schizotypal personality features in nonpsychotic relatives of schizophrenic patients Am. J. Psychiatry 55 1998 1214 1220
22. G. Chouinard, and W. Arnott Clinical review of risperidone Can. J. Psychiatry 38 Suppl. 3 1993 S89 S95
23. P.B. Clarke Nicotinic receptors in mammalian brain: localization and relation to cholinergic innervation Prog. Brain Res. 98 1993 77 83
24. P.B. Clarke, D.S. Fu, A. Jakubovic, and H.C. Fibiger Evidence that mesolimbic dopaminergic activation underlies the locomotor stimulant action of nicotine in rats J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 246 1988 701 718
25. C. Cohen, G. Perrault, C. Voltz, R. Steinberg, and P. Soubrie SR141716, a central cannabinoid (CB(1)) receptor antagonist, blocks the motivational and dopamine-releasing effects of nicotine in rats Behav Pharmacol. 13 5-6 2002 451 463
26. C. Cohen, G. Perrault, G. Griebel, and P. Soubrie Nicotine-associated cues maintain nicotine-seeking behavior in rats several weeks after nicotine withdrawal: reversal by the cannabinoid (CB1) receptor antagonist, rimonabant (SR141716) Neuropsychopharmacology 2005 145 155
27. D.R. Combs, and C. Advokat Antipsychotic medication and smoking prevalence in acutely hospitalized patients with chronic schizophrenia Schizophr. Res. 46 2-3 2000 129 137
28. W.A. Corrigall, and K.M. Coen Selective dopamine antagonists reduce nicotine self-administration Psychopharmacology 104 1991 171 176
29. W.A. Corrigall, K.B. Franklin, K.M. Coen, and P.B. Clarke The mesolimbic dopaminergic system is implicated in the reinforcing effects of nicotine Psychopharmacology 107 1992 285 289
30. W.A. Corrigall, K.M. Coen, and K.L. Adamson Self-administered nicotine activates the mesolimbic dopamine system through the ventral tegmental area Brain Res. 653 1994 278 284
31. A. Corvin, E. O'Mahony, M. O'Regan, C. Comerford, R. O'Connell, N. Craddock, and M. Gill Cigarette smoking and psychotic symptoms in bipolar affective disorder Br. J. Psychiatry 179 2001 35 38
32. P. Curzon, D.J. Kim, and M.W. Decker Effect of nicotine, lobeline, and mecamylamine on sensory gating in the rat Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 49 4 1994 877 882
33. G.W. Dalack, and J.H. Meador-Woodruff Smoking, smoking withdrawal and schizophrenia: case reports and a review of the literature Schizophr. Res. 22 2 1996 133 141
34. G.W. Dalack, D.J. Healy, and J.H. Meador-Woodruff Nicotine dependence in schizophrenia: clinical phenomena and laboratory findings Am. J. Psychiatry 155 11 1998 1490 1501
35. G.W. Dalack, L. Becks, E. Hill, O.F. Pomerleau, and J.H. Meador-Woodruff Nicotine withdrawal and psychiatric symptoms in cigarette smokers with schizophrenia Neuropsychopharmacology 21 2 1999 1995 2002
36. J. de Leon, M. Dadvand, C. Canuso, A.O. White, J.K. Stanilla, and G.M. Simpson Schizophrenia and smoking: an epidemiological survey in a state hospital Am. J. Psychiatry 152 1995 453 455
37. J. de Leon, J. Tracy, E. McCann, A. McGrory, and F.J. Diaz Schizophrenia and tobacco smoking: a replication study in another US psychiatric hospital Schizophr. Res. 56 1-2 2002 55 65
38. J. de Leon, F.J. Diaz, T. Rogers, D. Browne, and L. Dinsmore Initiation of daily smoking and nicotine dependence in schizophrenia and mood disorders Schizophr. Res. 56 1-2 2002 47 54
39. V. Della Casa, I. Hofer, I. Weiner, and J. Feldon The effects of smoking on acoustic prepulse inhibition in healthy men and women Psychopharmacology 137 4 1998 362 368
40. L. Dépatie, G.A. O'Driscoll, A.L. Holahan, V. Atkinson, J.X. Thavundayil, N.N. Kin, and S. Lal Nicotine and behavioral markers of risk for schizophrenia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study Neuropsychopharmacology 27 2002 1056 1070
41. A.R. Diefendorf, and R. Dodge An experimental study of the ocular reactions of the insane from photographic records Brain 31 1908 451 489
42. A. Diwan, M. Castine, C.S. Pomerleau, J.H. Meador-Woodruff, and G.W. Dalack Differential prevalence of cigarette smoking in patients with schizophrenic vs mood disorders Schizophr. Res. 33 1-2 1988 113 118
43. E. Duncan, S. Madonick, S. Chakravorty, A. Parwani, S. Szilagyi, T. Efferen, S. Gonzenbach, B. Angrist, and J. Rotrosen Effects of smoking on acoustic startle and prepulse inhibition in humans Psychopharmacology 156 2-3 2001 266 272
44. L. Erlenmeyer-Kimling Neurobehavioral deficits in offspring of schizophrenic parents: liability indicators and predictors of illness Am. J. Med. Genet. 97 1 2000 65 71
45. U. Ettinger, and V. Kumari Pharmacological studies of smooth pursuit and antisaccade eye movements in schizophrenia: current status and directions for future research Curr. Neuropharmacol. 1 2003 285 300
46. U. Ettinger, V. Kumari, X.A. Chitnis, P.J. Corr, T.J. Crawford, D.G. Fannon, S. O'ceallaigh, A.L. Sumich, V.C. Doku, and T. Sharma Volumetric neural correlates of antisaccade eye movements in first-episode psychosis Am. J. Psychiatry 161 10 2004 1918 1921
47. U. Ettinger, V. Kumari, T.J. Crawford, P.J. Corr, M. Das, C. Hughes, A.L. Sumich, E. Zachariah, S. Rabe-Hesketh, and T. Sharma Eye movement deficits in unaffected siblings of schizophrenia patients J. Psychiat. Res. 38 2 2004 177 184
48. U. Ettinger, V. Kumari, T.J. Crawford, V. Flak, T. Sharma, R.E. Davis, and P.J. Corr Antisaccade eye movements, schizotypy, and neuroticism Biol. Psychol. 68 1 2005 61 78
49. M.W. Eysenck Attention and Arousal: Cognition and Performance 1982 Springer Berlin
50. M.M. Faraday, V.A. O'Donoghue, and N.E. Grunberg Effects of nicotine and stress on startle amplitude and sensory gating depend on rat strain and sex Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2 2 1999 273 284
51. S.V. Faraone, L.J. Seidman, W.S. Kremen, D. Kennedy, N. Makris, V.S. Caviness, J. Goldstein, and M.T. Tsuang Structural brain abnormalities among relatives of patients with schizophrenia: implications for linkage studies Schizophr. Res. 60 2-3 2003 125 140
52. J. Foulds, J. Stapleton, J. Swettenham, N. Bell, K. McSorley, and M.A.H. Russell Cognitive performance effects of subcutaneous nicotine in smokers and non-smokers Psychopharmacology 127 1996 31 38
53. R. Freedman, L.E. Adler, M.C. Waldo, E. Pachtman, and R.D. Franks Neurophysiological evidence for a defect in inhibitory pathways in schizophrenia: comparison of medicated and drug-free patients Biol. Psychiatry 18 1983 537 551
54. R. Freedman, C. Wetmore, I. Stromberg, S. Leonard, and L. Olson Alpha-bungarotoxin binding to hippocampal interneurons: immunocytochemical characterization and effects on growth factor expression J. Neurosci. 13 1993 1965 1975
55. R. Freedman, M. Hall, L.E. Adler, and S. Leonard Evidence in postmortem brain tissue for decreased numbers of hippocampal nicotinic receptors in schizophrenia Biol. Psychiatry 38 1995 22 33
56. R. Freedman, H. Coon, M. Myles-Worsley, A. Orr-Urtreger, A. Olincy, A. Davis, M. Polymeropoulos, J. Holik, J. Hopkins, M. Hoff, J. Rosenthal, M.C. Waldo, F. Reimherr, P. Wender, J. Yaw, D.A. Young, C.R. Breese, C. Adams, D. Patterson, L.E. Adler, L. Kruglyak, S. Leonard, and W. Byerley Linkage of a neurophysiological deficit in schizophrenia to a chromosome 15 locus Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94 1997 587 592
57. R. Freedman, S. Leonard, J.M. Gault, J. Hopkins, C.R. Cloninger, C.A. Kaufmann, M.T. Tsuang, S.V. Faraone, D. Malaspina, D.M. Svrakic, A. Sanders, and P. Gejman Linkage disequilibrium for schizophrenia at the chromosome 15q13-14 locus of the (7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit gene (CHRNA7) Am. J. Med. Genet. 105 2001 20 22
58. T.P. George, M.J. Sernyak, D.M. Ziedonis, and S.W. Woods Effects of clozapine on smoking in chronic schizophrenic outpatients J. Clin. Psychiatry 56 8 1995 344 346
59. T.P. George, J.C. Vessicchio, A. Termine, D.M. Sahady, C.A. Head, W.T. Pepper, T.R. Kosten, and B.E. Wexler Effects of smoking abstinence on visuospatial working memory function in schizophrenia Neuropsychopharmacology 26 1 2002 75 85
60. George, T.P., Termine, A., Dudas, M,M., Seyal, A.A., Ludhi, T., Bannon, K., Vessicchio, J.C., Madonick, S.H., Sacco, K.A., 2003. Differential modulation of the acoustic startle response by cigarette smoking in schizophrenics versus healthy controls. Am. Coll. Neuropsychopharmacol., San Juan, Puerto Rico.
61. G.A. Gerhardt, K. Pang, and G.M. Rose In vivo electrochemical demonstration of the presynaptic actions of phencyclidine in rat caudate nucleus J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 241 2 1987 714 721
62. M.A. Geyer, K.L. McIlwain, and R. Paylor Mouse genetic models for prepulse inhibition: an early review Mol. Psychiatry 7 10 2002 1039 1053
63. D.G. Gilbert, and B.O. Gilbert Personality, psychopathology, and nicotine response as mediators of the genetics of smoking Behav. Genet. 25 2 1995 133 147
64. A.H. Glassman Cigarette smoking: implications for psychiatric illness Am. J. Psychiatry 150 4 1993 546 553
65. S.M. Glynn, and S. Sussman Why patients smoke Hosp. Comm. Psychiatry 41 9 1990 1027 1028
66. D.C. Goff, D.C. Henderson, and E. Amico Cigarette smoking in schizophrenia: relationship to psychopathology and medication side effects Am. J. Psychiatry 149 9 1992 1189 1194
67. D.C. Goff, C. Cather, A.E. Evins, D.C. Henderson, O. Freudenreich, P.M. Copeland, M. Bierer, K. Duckworth, and F.M. Sacks Medical morbidity and mortality in schizophrenia: guidelines for psychiatrists J. Clin. Psychiatry 66 2 2005 183 194
68. L.S. Goodman, and A.G. Gilman The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics 1980 Macmillan New York
69. D.C. Gooding, M.D. Miller, and T.R. Kwapil Smooth pursuit eye tracking and visual fixation in psychosis-prone individuals Psychiat. Res. 93 2000 41 54
70. I.I. Gottesman Schizophrenia Genesis: The origins of madness 1991 WH Freeman and Company New York
71. F.K. Graham The more or less startling effects of weak prestimulation Psychophysiology 12 1975 238 248
72. J.A. Gray, S.N. Mitchell, M.H. Joseph, G.A. Grigoryan, S. Dawe, and H. Hodges Neurochemical mechanisms mediating the behavioural and cognitive effects of nicotine Drug Dev. Res. 31 1994 3 17 (Special Issue: Therapeutics, Part1)
73. R. Gray, A.S. Rajan, K.A. Radcliffe, M. Yakehiro, and J.A. Dani Hippocampal synaptic transmission enhanced by low concentrations of nicotine Nature 383 1996 713 716
74. J.M. Griffith, J.E. O'Neill, F. Petty, D. Garver, D. Young, and R. Freedman Nicotinic receptor desensitization and sensory gating deficits in schizophrenia Biol. Psychiatry 44 2 1998 98 106
75. J.G. Harris, S. Kongs, D. Allensworth, L. Martin, J. Tregellas, B. Sullivan, G. Zerbe, and R. Freedman Effects of nicotine on cognitive deficits in schizophrenia Neuropsychopharmacology 29 7 2004 1378 1385
76. D. Hatsukami, L. Fletcher, S. Morgan, R. Keenam, and P. Amble The effects of varying cigarette deprivation duration on cognitive and performance tasks J. Subst. Abuse 1 1989 407 416
77. A.C. Heath, and N.G. Martin Genetic models for the natural history of smoking: evidence for a genetic influence on smoking persistence Addict. Behav. 18 1993 19 34
78. S.J. Heishman, R.C. Taylor, and J.E. Henningfield Nicotine and smoking: a review of effects on human performance Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacology 2 1994 345 395
79. J.E. Henningfield, K. Miyasato, and D.R. Jasinski Abuse liability and pharmacodynamic characteristics of intravenous and inhaled nicotine J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 234 1985 1 12
80. P.S. Holzman, E. Kringlen, D.L. Levy, and S.J. Haberman Deviant eye tracking in twins discordant for psychosis A Replication. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 37 1980 627 631
81. J.R. Hughes, D.K. Hatsukami, J.E. Mitchell, and L.A. Dahlgren Prevalence of smoking among psychiatric outpatients Am. J. Psychiatry 143 8 1986 993 997
82. A. Imperato, A. Mulas, and G. Di Chiara Nicotine preferentially stimulates dopamine release in the limbic system of freely moving rats Eur. J. Pharmacol. 132 1986 337 338
83. L.K. Jacobsen, D.C. D'Souza, W.E. Mencl, K.R. Pugh, P. Skudlarski, and J.H. Krystal Nicotine effects on brain function and functional connectivity in schizophrenia Biol. Psychiatry 55 8 2004 850 858
84. J.H. Jaffe A.C. Gilman L.S. Goodman T.W. Rall F. Murad Drug Addiction and Drugs Abuse The Pharamacological Basis of Therapeutics 1985 Macmillan New York
85. D.C. Javitt, and S.R. Zukin Recent advances in the phencyclidine model of schizophrenia Am. J. Psychiatry 148 10 1991 1301 1318
86. J.D. Jentsch, and R.H. Roth The neuropsychopharmacology of phencyclidine: from NMDA receptor hypofunction to the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia Neuropsychopharmacology 20 3 1999 201 225
87. R. Joober, J.M. Zarate, G.A. Rouleau, E. Skamene, and P. Boksa Provisional mapping of quantitative trait loci modulating the acoustic startle response and prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle Neuropsychopharmacology 27 2002 765 781
88. W.R. Kem The brain alpha7 nicotinic receptor may be an important therapeutic target for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: studies with DMXBA (GTS-21) Behav. Brain Res. 113 1-2 2000 169 181
89. D.G. Kirch, G.A. Gerhardt, R.C. Shelton, R. Freedman, and R.J. Wyatt Effect of chronic nicotine administration on monoamine and monoamine metabolite concentrations in rat brain Clin. Neuropharmacol. 10 1987 376 383
90. C.H. Klein, and B. Andresen On the influence of smoking upon smooth pursuit eye movements of schizophrenics and normal controls J. Psychophysiol. 5 1991 361 369
91. V. Knott, M. Bosman, C. Mahoney, V. Ilivitsky, and K. Quirt Transdermal nicotine: single dose effects on mood, EEG, performance, and event-related potentials Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 63 1999 253 261
92. V. Kumari, S.A. Checkley, and J.A. Gray Effect of cigarette smoking on prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle reflex in healthy male smokers Psychopharmacology 128 1 1996 54 60
93. V. Kumari, P.A. Cotter, S.A. Checkley, and J.A. Gray Effect of acute subcutaneous nicotine on prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle reflex in healthy male non-smokers Psychopharmacology 132 4 1997 389 395
94. V. Kumari, B. Toone, and J.A. Gray Habituation and prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle reflex: effects of smoking status and psychosis-proneness Pers. Indiv. Diff. 23 1997 183 191
95. V. Kumari, W. Soni, and T. Sharma Influence of cigarette smoking on prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response in schizophrenia Hum. Psychopharm. Clin. Exp. 16 2001 321 326
96. V. Kumari, J.A. Gray, D. ffytche, M.T. Mitterschiffthaler, M. Das, E. Zachariah, G.N. Vythelingum, S.C.R. Williams, A. Simmons, and T. Sharma Cognitive effects of nicotine in humans: a functional MRI investigation NeuroImage 19 2003 1002 1013
97. V. Kumari, J.A. Gray, M.A. Geyer, M. Mitterschiffthaler, D. Ffytche, G.N. Vythelingum, W. Soni, A. Simmons, S.C.R. Williams, and T. Sharma Neural correlates of prepulse inhibition in normal and schizophrenic subjects: a functional MRI study Psychiat. Res. Neuroimag. 122 2003 99 113
98. V. Kumari, U. Ettinger, T. Crawford, E. Zachariah, and T. Sharma Inhibitory deficits in chronic schizophrenia: lack of association between prepulse inhibition and anti-saccadic abnormalities J. Psychiat. Res. 39 2005 227 240
99. N.S. Lawrence, T.J. Ross, and E.A. Stein Cognitive mechanisms of nicotine on visual attention Neuron 36 2002 539 548
100. J. Le Houezec, R. Halliday, N.L. Benowitz, E. Callaway, H. Naylor, and K. Herzig A low dose of subcutaneous nicotine improves information-processing in non-smokers Psychopharmacology 114 1994 628 634
101. R. Lencer, K. Trillenberg-Krecker, E. Schwinger, and V. Arolt Schizophrenia spectrum disorders and eye tracking dysfunction in singleton and multiplex schizophrenia families Schizophr. Res. 60 2003 33 45
102. S. Leonard, C. Adams, C.R. Breese, L.E. Adler, P. Bickford, W. Byerley, H. Coon, J.M. Griffith, C. Miller, M. Myles-Worsley, H.T. Nagamoto, Y. Rollins, K.E. Stevens, M. Waldo, and R. Freedman Nicotinic receptor function in schizophrenia Schizophr. Bull. 22 3 1996 431 445
103. S. Leonard, J. Gault, C. Adams, C.R. Breese, Y. Rollins, L.E. Adler, A. Olincy, and R. Freedman Nicotinic receptors, smoking and schizophrenia Restor. Neurol. Neurosci. 12 2-3 1998 195 201
104. E.D. Levin, and A.H. Rezvani Nicotinic treatment for cognitive dysfunction Curr. Drug Targets C.N.S. Neurol. Disord. 1 4 2002 423 431
105. E.D. Levin, and B.B. Simon Nicotinic acetylcholine involvement in cognitive function in animals Psychopharmacology 138 1998 217 230
106. E.D. Levin, J.E. Rose, and L. Abood Effects of nicotinic dimethylaminoethyl esters on working memory performance of rats in the radial-arm maze Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 51 1995 369 373
107. E.D. Levin, K. Toll, G. Chang, N.C. Christopher, and S.J. Briggs Epibatidine, a potent nicotinic agonist: effects on learning and memory in the radial-arm maze Med. Chem. Res. 6 1996 543 554
108. E.D. Levin, W. Wilson, J.E. Rose, and J. McEvoy Nicotine-haloperidol interactions and cognitive performance in schizophrenics Neuropsychopharmacology 15 5 1996 429 436
109. E.D. Levin, M.I. Damaj, W. Glassco, E.L. May, and B.R. Martin Bridged nicotine, isonicotine, and norisonicotine effects on working memory of rats in the medial-arm maze Drug Dev. Res. 46 1999 107 111
110. D.L. Levy, P.S. Holzman, S. Matthysse, and N.R. Mendell Eye tracking dysfunction and schizophrenia: a critical perspective Schizophr. Bull. 19 1993 461 536
111. P.M. Lippiello, M. Bencherif, J.A. Gray, S. Peters, G. Grigoryan, H. Hodges, and C. Collins RJR-2403: a nicotinic agonist with CNS selectivity. II. In vivo characterisation J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 279 1996 1422 1429
112. J.B. Lohr, and K. Flynn Smoking and schizophrenia Schizophr. Res. 8 1992 93 102
113. M.J. Lyons, J.L. Bar, W.S. Kremen, R. Toomey, S.A. Eisen, J. Goldberg, S.V. Faraone, and M. Tsuang Nicotine and familial vulnerability to schizophrenia: a discordant twin study J. Abnorm. Psychol. 111 2002 687 693
114. L.F. Martin, W.R. Kem, and R. Freedman Alpha-7 nicotinic receptor agonists: potential new candidates for the treatment of schizophrenia Psychopharmacology 174 1 2004 54 64
115. J. McEvoy, O. Freudenreich, M. McGee, C. VanderZwaag, E. Levin, and J. Rose Clozapine decreases smoking in patients with chronic schizophrenia Biol. Psychiatry 37 1995 550 552
116. J.P. McEvoy, O. Freudenreich, E.D. Levin, and J.E. Rose Haloperidol increases smoking in patients with schizophrenia Psychopharmacology 119 1995 124 126
117. J.P. McEvoy, O. Freudenreich, and W.H. Wilson Smoking and therapeutic response to clozapine in patients with schizophrenia Biol. Psychiatry 46 1 1999 125 129
118. D.S. McGehee, and L.W. Role Physiological diversity of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors expressed by vertebrate neurons Anu. Rev. Physiol. 57 1995 521 546
119. D. McLean, F. Feron, A. Mackay-Sim, R. McCurdy, M. Hirning, D. Chant, and J. McGrath Paradoxical association between smoking and olfactory identification in psychosis versus controls Aust. N.Z.J. Psychiatry 38 1-2 2004 81 83
120. K. Nagata, T. Shinohara, I. Kanno, J. Hatzawa, and E. Domino E.F. Domino Effects of Tobacco Cigarette Smoking on Cerebral Blood Flow in Normal Adults Brain Imaging of Nicotine and Tobacco Smoking 1995 Ann Arbor, NPP 95 107
121. A. Nilsson, L. Waller, A. Rosengren, and L. Wilhelmsen Cigarette smoking is associated with abnormal involuntary movements in the general male population - a study of men born in 1933 Biol. Psychiatry 41 6 1997 717 723
122. H. Nyback, A. Nordberg, B. Langstrom, C. Halldin, P. Hartvig, A. Ahlin, C.G. Swahn, and G. Sedvall Attempts to visualize nicotinic receptors in the brain of monkey and man by positron emission tomography Prog. Brain Res. 79 1989 313 319
123. G.A. O'Driscoll, M.F. Lenzenweger, and P.S. Holzman Antisaccades and smooth pursuit eye tracking and schizotypy Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 55 1998 837 843
124. A. Olincy, D.A. Young, and R. Freedman Increased levels of the nicotine metabolite cotinine in schizophrenic smokers compared to other smokers Biol. Psychiatry 42 1 1997 1 5
125. A. Olincy, R.G. Ross, S. Leonard, and R. Freedman Preliminary linkage of eye movement abnormalities in schizophrenia Biol. Psychiatry 41 1997 287
126. A. Olincy, R.G. Ross, D.A. Young, M. Roath, and R. Freedman Improvement in smooth pursuit eye movements after cigarette smoking in schizophrenic patients Neuropsychopharmacology 18 1998 175 185
127. A. Olincy, L.L. Johnson, and R.G. Ross Differential effects of cigarette smoking on performance of a smooth pursuit and a saccadic eye movement task in schizophrenia Psychiatry Res. 117 2003 223 236
128. A.A. Palmer, L.L. Breen, P. Flodman, L.H. Conti, M.A. Spence, and M.P. Printz Identification of quantitative trait loci for prepulse inhibition in rats Psychopharmacology 165 3 2003 270 279
129. J. Patrick, P. Sequela, S. Vernino, M. Amador, C. Luetje, and J.A. Dani Functional diversity of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors Prog. Brain Res. 98 1993 113 120
130. R. Paylor, and J.N. Crawley Inbred strain differences in prepulse inhibition of the mouse startle response Psychopharmacology 132 1997 169 180
131. E.F. Pereira, C. Hilmas, M.D. Santos, M. Alkondon, and A. Maelicke Albuquerque EX. Unconventional ligands and modulators of nicotinic receptors J. Neurobiol. 53 4 2002 479 500
132. W. Perry, and D.L. Braff Information-processing deficits and thought disorder in schizophrenia Am. J. Psychiatry 151 3 1994 363 367
133. W. Perry, M.A. Geyer, and D.L. Braff Sensorimotor gating and thought disturbance measured in close temporal proximity in schizophrenic patients Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 56 1999 277 281
134. E.M. Pich, S.R. Pagliusi, M. Tessari, D. Talabot-Ayer, R. Hooft van Huijsduijnen, and C. Chiamulera Common neural substrates for the addictive properties of nicotine and cocaine Science 275 1997 83 86
135. J. Powell, L. Dawkins, and R.E. Davis Smoking, reward responsiveness, and response inhibition: tests of an incentive motivational model Biol. Psychiatry 51 2002 151 163
136. R.M. Procyshyn, N. Ihsan, and D. Thompson A comparison of smoking behaviours between patients treated with clozapine and depot neuroleptics Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 16 5 2001 291 294
137. R.M. Procyshyn, G. Tse, O. Sin, and S. Flynn Concomitant clozapine reduces smoking in patients treated with risperidone Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 12 1 2002 77 80
138. A.H. Rezvani, and E.D. Levin Nicotine-antipsychotic drug interactions and attentional performance in female rats Eur. J. Pharmacol. 486 2 2004 175 182
139. K. Riala, H. Hakko, M. Isohanni, A. Pouta, and P. Rasanen Is initiation of smoking associated with the prodromal phase of schizophrenia? J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 30 1 2005 26 32
140. Y.B.W.E.M. Roos, F.E. de Jongh, and L. Crevits The effects of smoking on anti-saccades Neuroophthalmology 15 1995 3 8
141. F. Rubboli, J.A. Court, C. Sala, C. Morris, B. Chini, E. Perry, and F. Clementi Distribution of nicotinic receptors in the human hippocampus and thalamus Eur. J. Neurosci. 6 1994 1596 1604
142. F. Rubboli, J.A. Court, C. Sala, C. Morris, E. Perry, and F. Clementi Distribution of neuronal nicotinic receptor subunits in human brain Neurochem. Int. 25 1994 69 71
143. K.A. Sacco, K.L. Bannon, and T.P. George Nicotinic receptor mechanisms and cognition in normal states and neuropsychiatric disorders J. Psychopharmacol. 18 4 2004 457 474
144. R.K. Salokangas, S. Saarijarvi, T. Taiminen, H. Lehto, H. Niemi, V. Ahola, and E. Syvalahti Effect of smoking on neuroleptics in schizophrenia Schizophr. Res. 23 1 1997 55 60
145. P.B. Sargent The diversity of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 16 1993 403 443
146. T. Sawaguchi, and P.S. Goldman-Rakic The role of D1-dopamine receptor in working memory: local injections of dopamine antagonists into the prefrontal cortex of rhesus monkeys performing an oculomotor delayed-response task J. Neurophysiol. 71 1994 515 528
147. R. Schoepfer, W.G. Conroy, P. Whiting, M. Gore, and J. Lindstrom Brain alpha-bungarotoxin binding protein cDNAs and MAbs reveal subtypes of this branch of the ligand-gated ion channel gene superfamily Neuron 5 1990 35 48
148. D.W. Schulz, R.H. Loring, E. Aizenman, and R.E. Zigmond Autoradiographic localization of putative nicotinic receptors in the rat brain using 125I-neuronal bungarotoxin J. Neurosci. 11 1990 287 297
149. S. Semenova, A. Bespalov, and A. Markou Decreased prepulse inhibition during nicotine withdrawal in DBA/2J mice is reversed by nicotine self-administration Eur. J. Pharmacol. 472 1-2 2003 99 110
150. T. Sharma, and L. Antonova Cognitive function in schizophrenia. Deficits, functional consequences, and future treatment Psychiatr. Clin. North. Am. 26 2003 25 40
151. J.D. Sherr, C. Myers, M.T. Avila, A. Elliott, T.A. Blaxton, and G.K. Thaker The effects of nicotine on specific eye tracking measures in schizophrenia Biol. Psychiatry 52 2002 721 728
152. L.J. Siever, L. Friedman, J. Moskowitz, V. Mitropoulou, R. Keefe, S.L. Roitman, D. Merhige, R. Trestman, J. Silverman, and R. Mohs Eye movement impairment and schizotypal psychopathology Am. J. Psychiatry 151 1994 1209 1215
153. H. Silver, N. Shlomo, C. Hiemke, M.L. Rao, M. Ritsner, and I. Modai Schizophrenic patients who smoke have a faster finger tapping rate than non-smokers Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2 2 2002 141 144
154. J.K. Simosky, K.E. Stevens, L.E. Adler, and R. Freedman Clozapine improves deficient inhibitory auditory processing in DBA/2 mice, via a nicotinic cholinergic mechanism Psychopharmacology 165 4 2003 386 396
155. R.C. Smith, H.Y. Meltzer, R.C. Arora, and J.M. Davis Effects of phencyclidine on [3H]catecholamine and [3H]serotonin uptake in synaptosomal preparations from rat brain Biochem. Pharmacol. 26 15 1977 1435 1439
156. R.C. Smith, A. Singh, M. Infante, A. Khandat, and A. Kloos Effects of cigarette smoking and nicotine nasal spray on psychiatric symptoms and cognition in schizophrenia Neuropsychopharmacology 27 3 2002 479 497
157. C. Spielewoy, and A. Markou Strain-specificity in nicotine attenuation of phencyclidine-induced disruption of prepulse inhibition in mice: relevance to smoking in schizophrenia patients Behav. Genet. 34 3 2004 343 354
158. E.A. Stein, J. Pankiewicz, H.H. Harsch, J.K. Cho, S.A. Fuller, R.G. Hoffmann, M. Hawkins, S.M. Rao, P.A. Bandettini, and A.S. Bloom Nicotine-induced limbic cortical activation in the human brain: a functional MRI study Am. J. Psychiatry 155 1998 1009 1015
159. K.E. Stevens, and K.D. Wear Normalizing effects of nicotine and a novel nicotinic agonist on hippocampal auditory gating in two animal models Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 57 4 1997 869 874
160. K.E. Stevens, W.R. Kem, V.M. Mahnir, and R. Freedman Selective alpha-7-nicotinic agonists normalize inhibition of auditory response in DBA mice Psychopharmacology 136 1998 320 327
161. I.P. Stolerman, and M.J. Jarvis The scientific case that nicotine is addictive Psychopharmacology 117 1995 2 10 (discussion 14-20)
162. J.E. Strand, and H. Nyback Tobacco use in schizophrenia: a study of cotinine concentrations in the saliva of patients and controls Eur. Psychiatry 20 1 2005 50 54
163. K. Sugaya, E. Giacobini, and V.A. Chiappinelli Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes in human frontal cortex: changes in Alzheimer's disease J. Neurosci. Res. 27 1990 349 359
164. N.R. Swerdlow, and M.A. Geyer Using an animal model of deficient sensorimotor gating to study the pathophysiology and new treatments of schizophrenia Schizophr. Bull. 24 1998 285 301
165. N.R. Swerdlow, D.L. Braff, N. Taaid, and M.A. Geyer Assessing the validity of an animal model of deficient sensorimotor gating in schizophrenic patients Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 51 1994 139 154
166. N.R. Swerdlow, M.A. Geyer, and D.L. Braff Neural circuit regulation of prepulse inhibition of startle in the rat: current knowledge and future challenges Psychopharmacology 156 2-3 2001 194 215
167. N.R. Swerdlow, A. Platten, Y.K. Kim, I. Gaudet, J. Shoemaker, L. Pitcher, and P. Auerbach Sensitivity to the dopaminergic regulation of prepulse inhibition in rats: evidence for genetic, but not environmental determinants Pharm. Biochem. Behav. 70 2001 219 226
168. N.R. Swerdlow, J.M. Shoemaker, L. Pitcher, A. Platten, R. Kuczenski, C.C. Eleey, and P. Auerbach Genetic differences in startle gating-disruptive effects of apomorphine: evidence for central mediation Behav. Neurosci. 116 2002 682 890
169. A.V. Terry, J.J. Buccafausco, W.J. Jackson, S. Zagrodnik, F.F. Evanmartin, and M.W. Decker Effects of stimulation or blockade of central nicotinic-cholinergic receptors on performance of a novel version of the rat stimulus discrimination task Psychopharmacology 123 1996 172 181
170. A. Uck, A. Polat, O. Bozkurt, and H. Meteris Cigarette smoking among patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorders Psychiat. Clin. Neurosci. 58 4 2004 434 437
171. C. Vidal, and J.P. Changeux Nicotinic and muscarinic modulations of excitatory synaptic transmission in the rat prefrontal cortex in vitro Neuroscience 56 1993 23 32
172. M.C. Waldo, G. Carey, M. Myles-Worsley, E. Cawthra, L.E. Adler, H.T.
173. M.C. Waldo, M. Myles-Worsley, A. Madison, W. Byerley, and R. Freedman Sensory gating deficits in parents of schizophrenics Am. J. Med. Genet. 60 1995 506 511
174. D.M. Warburton Nicotine as a cognitive enhancer, in Yamashita I (Ed), Clinical Neuropharmacology New York, Raven Press, pp 1990 579 580
175. D.R. Weinberger, and K.F. Berman Speculation on the meaning of cerebral metabolic hypofrontality in schizophrenia Schizophr. Bull. 14 2 1988 157 168
176. M. Weiser, A. Reichenberg, I. Grotto, R. Yasvitzky, J. Rabinowitz, G. Lubin, D. Nahon, H.Y. Knobler, and M. Davidson Higher rates of cigarette smoking in male adolescents before the onset of schizophrenia: a historical-prospective cohort study Am. J. Psychiatry 161 7 2004 1219 1223
177. I.C. Weiss, L. Di Iorio, J. Feldon, and A.M. Domeney Strain differences in the isolation-induced effects on prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response and on locomotor activity Behav. Neurosci. 114 2000 364 373
178. K. Wesnes, and D.M. Warburton Smoking, nicotine and human performance Pharmacol. Ther. 21 1983 189 208
179. J.H. Williams, N.A. Wellman, N.M. Allan, E. Taylor, J. Tonin, J. Feldon, and J.N.P. Rawlins Tobacco smoking correlates with schizotypal and borderline personality traits Pers. Indiv. Diff. 20 1996 267 270
180. T. Wills, and T.A. Shiffman T. Wills T.A. Shiffman Coping and Substance Use: A Conceptual Framework Coping and Substance Use 1985 Academic Press New York
181. R.A. Wise, and P.P. Rompre Brain dopamine and reward Annu. Rev. Psychol. 40 1989 191 225
182. Y.K. Yang, L. Nelson, L. Kamaraju, W. Wilson, and J.P. McEvoy Nicotine decreases bradykinesia-rigidity in haloperidol-treated patients with schizophrenia Neuropsychopharmacology 27 4 2002 684 686
183. D.M. Ziedonis, and T.P. George Schizophrenia and nicotine use: report of a pilot smoking cessation program and review of neurobiological and clinical issues Schizophr. Bull. 23 1997 247 254