The risk/benefit of inhaled corticosteroids in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Expert Opinion on Drug Safety

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 251-271

  Bonay, Marcel ^a,b   Bancal, Catherine ^a   Crestani, Bruno ^a,b  

^a BICHAT HOSPITAL   (France)

^b INSERM   (France)

Author keywords

Adverse effects; Bone mineral density; Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Exacerbation; Health status; Inhaled corticosteroids; Inhaled long acting agonists; Lung function

Indexed keywords

BECLOMETASONE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BUDESONIDE; CORTICOSTEROID; CYTOCHROME P450 INHIBITOR; ELASTASE; FLUTICASONE PROPIONATE; FORMOTEROL; GLUCOCORTICOID; HYDROCORTISONE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; INTERLEUKIN 8; INTERSTITIAL COLLAGENASE; METHACHOLINE; PLACEBO; PREDNISOLONE; SALMETEROL; STEROID; TERBUTALINE; TRIAMCINOLONE ACETONIDE;

ADRENAL INSUFFICIENCY; AGE DISTRIBUTION; ASPERGILLOSIS; ASTHMA; BONE DENSITY; BRONCHUS BIOPSY; CATARACT; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; CIGARETTE SMOKING; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMORBIDITY; CORTICOSTEROID INDUCED OSTEOPOROSIS; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; DRUG EXPOSURE; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG RESPONSE; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG SURVEILLANCE PROGRAM; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; DYSPHONIA; DYSPNEA; ENZYME ACTIVITY; FORCED EXPIRATORY VOLUME; FRACTURE; HEALTH SURVEY; HUMAN; HYDROCORTISONE BLOOD LEVEL; HYPERADRENOCORTICISM; HYPERTENSION; HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; INCIDENCE; INFECTION; INFLAMMATION; INTRAOCULAR HYPERTENSION; LUNG EMPHYSEMA; LUNG FUNCTION TEST; METERED DOSE INHALER; MONOTHERAPY; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; MYOPATHY; NONHUMAN; NORMAL VALUE; OSTEOPENIA; PEPTIC ULCER; POWDER INHALER; PSYCHOSIS; QUALITY ADJUSTED LIFE YEAR; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; RISK FACTOR; SKIN BRUISING; SMOKING CESSATION; SORE THROAT; SURVIVAL; T LYMPHOCYTE; THRUSH; WOUND HEALING IMPAIRMENT;

ADMINISTRATION, INHALATION; ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES; ADRENAL GLANDS; ADRENERGIC BETA-AGONISTS; ADULT; AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; ANIMALS; CATARACT; CONTUSIONS; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; HUMANS; MIDDLE AGED; OSTEOPOROSIS; PULMONARY DISEASE, CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE; RESPIRATORY FUNCTION TESTS; SMOKING; SMOKING CESSATION;

EID: 20944447344     PISSN: 14740338     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1517/14740338.4.2.251     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. DE MARCOR, ACCORDINI S, CERVERI I et al.: for the European Community Respiratory Health Survey (ECHRS) study group: An international survey of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in young adults according to GOLD stages. Thorax (2004) 59:120-125.
2. MURRAY CJL, LOPEZ AD: Mortality by cause for eight regions of the world: Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet (1997) 349:1269-1276.
3. MURRAY CJL, LOPEZ AD: Alternative projections of mortality and disability by cause 1990-2020: Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet (1997) 349:1498-1504.
4. BURROWS B: Predictors of loss of lung function and mortality in obstructive lung diseases. Eur. Respir. Rev. (1991) 1:340-345.
5. ANTHONISEN NR, CONNETT JE, KILEY JP et al.: Effects of smoking intervention and the use of an inhaled anticholinergic bronchodilator on the rate of decline of FEV1. JAMA (1994) 272:1497-1505.
6. PAUWELS RA, BUIST AS, CALVERLEY PMA, JENKINS CR, HURD SS, on behalf of the GOLD Scientific Committee: Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care. Med. (2001) 163:1256-1276.
7. JACKEVICIUS C, JOYCE DP, KESTEN S, CHAPMAN KR: Prehospitalization inhaled corticosteroid use in patients with COPD or asthma. Chest (1997) 111:296-302.
8. MIRAVITLLES M, MAYORDOMO C, ARTES M, SANCHEZ-AGUDO L, NICOLAU F, SEGU JL: Treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and its exacerbations in general practice. EOLO Group. Resp. Med. (1999) 93:173-179.
9. VAN ANDEL AE, REISNER C, MENJOGE SS, WITEK TJ: Analysis of inhaled coticosteroid and oral theophylline use among patients with stable COPD from 1987 to 1995. Chest (1999) 115:703-707.
10. SIN DD, GOLMOHAMMADI K, JACOBS P: Cost-effectiveness of inhaled corticosteroids for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease according to disease severity. Am. J. Med. (2004) 116:325-331.
11. VAN DEN BOOM G, RUTTEN-VAN MÖLKEN MPMH, MOLEMA J, TIRIMANNA PRS, VAN WEEL C, VAN SCHAYCK CP: The cost effectiveness of early treatment with fluticasone propionate 250 μg twice a day in subjects with obstructive airway disease: results of the DIMCA program. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2001) 164:2057-2066.
12. SAETTA M, TURATO G, MAESTRELLI P, MAPP CE, FABBRI LM: Cellular and structural bases of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2001) 163:1304-1309.
13. FABBRI LM, ROMAGNOLI M, CORBETTA L et al.: Differences in airway inflammation in patients with fixed airflow obstruction due to asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2003) 167:418-424.
14. WANG Z, ZHENG T, ZHU Z et al.: Interferon gamma induction of pulmonary emphysema in the adult murine lung. J. Exp. Med. (2000) 192:1587-1600.
15. ZHENG T, ZHU Z, WANG Z et al.: Inducible targeting of IL-13 to the adult lung causes matrix metalloproteinase- and cathepsin-dependent emphysema. J. Clin. Invest. (2000) 106:1081-1093.
16. BOUTTEN A, BONAY M, LARIBE S et al.: Decreased expression of interleukin 13 in human lung emphysema. Thorax (2004) 59:850-854.
17. HILL AT, BAYLEY D, STOCKLEY RA: The interrelationship of sputum inflammatory markers in patients with chronic bronchitis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1999) 160:893-898.
18. KEATINGS VM, COLLINS PD, SCOTT DM, BARNES PJ: Differences in interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor-α in induced sputum from patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1996) 153:530-534.
19. RIISE GC, LARSSON S, LOFDAHL GC, ANDERSON B: Circulating cell adhesion molecules in bronchoalveoloar lavage and serum in COPD patients with chronic bronchitis. Eur. Respir. J. (1994) 7:1673-1677.
20. KEATINGS VM, BARNES PJ. Granulocyte activation markers in induced sputum: comparison between chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, and normal subjects. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1997) 155:449-453.
21. SAETTA M, DI STEFANO A, MAESTRELLI P et al.: Airway eosinophilia in chronic bronchitis during exacerbations. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1994) 150:1646-1652.
22. PAVORD ID, BRIGHTLING CE, WOLTMANN G, WARDLAW AJ: Non-eosinophilic corticosteroid unresponsive asthma. Lancet (1999) 353:2213-2214.
23. KEATINGS VM, JATAKANON A, WORSDELL YM, BARNES P: Effects of inhaled and oral glucocorticoids on inflammatory indices in asthma and COPD. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1997) 155:542-548.
24. FINKELSTEIN R, FRASER RS, GHEZZO H, COSIO MG: Alveolar inflammation and its relation to emphysema in smokers. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1995) 152:1666-1672.
25. RICKJEN B, WEISS ST. Longitudinal analysis of airway responsiveness and pulmonary function decline. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1996) 154:S246-S249.
26. TASHKIN DP, ALTOSE MD, CONNETT JE, KANNER RE, LEE WW, WISE RA: Methacholine reactivity predicts changes in lung function over time in smokers with early chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1996) 153:1802-1811.
27. XU X, RICKJEN B, SCHOUTEN JF, WEISS ST: Airways responsiveness and development and remission of chronic respiratory symptoms in adults. Lancet (1997) 350:1431-1434.
28. TRACEY M, VILLAR A, DOW L, COGGON D, LAMPE FC, HOLGATE ST: The influence of increased bronchial responsiveness, atopy, and serum IgE on decline in FEV1. A longitudinal study in the elderly. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1995) 151:656-662.
29. PARKER DR, O'CONNOR GT, SPARROW D, SEGAL MR, WEISS ST: The relationship of non specific airway responsiveness and atopy to the rate of decline of lung function. The Normative Aging Study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1990) 141:589-594.
30. O'CONNOR GT, SPARROW D, WEISS ST: A prospective longitudinal study of methacholine airway responsiveness as a predictor of pulmonary-function decline: The Normative Aging Study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1995) 152:87-92.
31. KERSTJENS HAM, BRAND PLP, HUGHES MD et al.: A comparison of bronchodilator therapy with or without inhaled corticosteroid therapy for obstructive airways disease. N. Engl. J. Med. (1992) 327:1413-1419.
32. CONFALONIERI M, MAINARDI E, DELLA PORTA R et al.: Inhaled corticosteroids reduce neutrophilic bronchial inflammation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax (1998) 53:583-585.
33. LLEWELLYN-JONES CG, HARRIS TAJ, STOCKLEY RA: Effect of fluticasone propionate on sputum of patients with chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1996) 153:616-21.
34. BALBI B, MAJORI M, BERTACCO S, CONVERTINO G et al.: Inhaled corticosteroids in stable COPD patients. Do they have effects on cells and molecular mediators of airway inflammation? Chest (2000) 117:1633-1637.
35. CULPITT SV, MAZIAK W, LOUKIDIS S, NIGHTINGALE JA, MATTHEWS JL, BARNES PJ: Effect of high dose inhaled steroid on cells, cytokines, and proteases in induced sputum in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1999) 160:1635-1639.
36. GIZYCKI MJ, HATTOTUWA KL, BARNES N, JEFFERY PK: Effects of fluticasone propionate on inflammatory cells in COPD: an ultrastructural examination of endobronchial biopsy tissue. Thorax (2002) 57:799-803.
37. HATTOTUWA KL, GIZYCKI MJ, ANSARI TW, JEFFERY PK, BARNES NC: The effects of inhaled fluticasone on airway inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2002) 165:1592-1596.
38. CHANEZ P, VIGNOLA AM, O'SHAUGHNESSY T, ENANDER I, LI D, JEFFERY PK et al.: Corticosteroid reversibility in COPD is related to features of asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1997) 155:1529-1534.
39. PIZZICHINI E, PIZZICHINI MM, GIBSON P, PARAMESWARAN K, GLEICH GJ, BERMAN L et al.: Sputum eosinophilia predicts benefit from prednisolone in smokers with chronic obstructive bronchitis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1998) 158:1511-1517.
40. FUJIMOTO K, KUBO K, YAMAMOTO H, YAMAGUCHI S, MATSUZAWA Y: Eosinophilic inflammation in the airway is related to glucocorticoid reversibility in patients with pulmonary emphysema. Chest (1999) 115:697-702.
41. BRIGHTLING CE, MONTEIRO W, WARD R, PARKER D, MORGAN MDL, WARDLAW AJ et al.: Sputum eosinophilia and short-term response to prednisolone in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet (2000) 356:1480-1485.
42. CHAUDHURI R, LIVINGSTON E, MCMAHON AD, THOMSON L, BORLAND W, THOMSON NC: Cigarette smoking impairs the therapeutic response to oral corticosteroids in chronic asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2003) 168:1308-1311.
43. DOMAGALA-KULAWIK J, MASKEY-WARZECHOWSKA M, KRASZEWSKA I, CHAZAN R: The cellular composition and macrophage phenotype in induced sputum in smokers and ex-smokers with COPD. Chest (2003) 123:1054-1059.
44. AUFFARTH BK, POSTMA DS, DE MONCHY JGR, VAN DER MARK TWR, BOORSMA M, KOETER GH: Effects of inhaled budesonide on spirometric values, reversibility, airway responsiveness, and cough threshold in smokers with chronic obstructive lung disease. Thorax (1991) 46:372-377.
45. THOMPSON AB, MUELLER MB, HEIRES AJ et al.: Aerosolized beclomethasone in chronic bronchitis: improved pulmonary function and diminished airway inflammation. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. (1992) 146:389-395.
46. WEIR DC, GOVE RI, ROBERTSON AS, BURGE PS: Corticosteroid trials in non-asthmatic chronic airflow obstruction: a comparison of oral prednisolone and inhaled beclomethasone dipropionate. Thorax (1990) 45:112-117.
47. WEIR DC, BURGE PS: Effects of high dose inhaled beclomethasone dipropionate, 750 micrograms and 1500 micrograms twice daily, and 40 mg per day oral prednisolone on lung function, symptoms, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness in patients with non-asthmatic chronic airflow obstruction. Thorax (1993) 48:309-316.
48. RUTGERS SR, KOETER GH, VAN DER MARK TW, POSTMA DS: Short-term treatment with budesonide does not improve hyperresponsiveness to adenosine 5′-monophosphate in COPD. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (1998) 157:880-886.
49. NISHIMURA K, KOYAMA H, IKEDA A et al.: The effect of high dose inhaled beclomethasone dipropionate in patients with stable COPD. Chest (1999) 115:31-37.
50. WEMPE JB, POSTMA DS, BREEDERVELD N, KORT E, VAN DER MARK TW, KOETER GH: Effects of corticosteroids on bronchodilator action in chronic obstructive lung disease. Thorax (1992) 47:616-621.
51. WATSON A, LIM TK, JOYCE H, PRIDE NB: Failure of inhaled corticosteroids to modify bronchoconstrictor or bronchodilator responsiveness in middle-aged smokers with mild airflow obstruction. Chest (1992) 101:350-355.
52. POSTMA DS, STEENHUIS EJ, VAN DER WEELE LT, SLUITER HJ: Severe chronic airflow obstruction: can corticosteroids slow down progression? Eur. J. Respir. Dis. (1985) 67:56-64.
53. POSTMA DS, PETERS I, STEENHUIS EJ, SLUITER HJ: Moderately severe chronic airflow obstruction : can corticosteroids slow down progression? Eur. J. Respir. Dis. (1988) 1:22-26.
54. DOMPELING E, VAN SCHAYCK CP, VAN GRUNSVEN PM et al.: Slowing the deterioration of asthma and Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease observed during bronchodilator therapy by adding inhaled corticosteroids : a 4-year prospective study. Ann. Intern. Med. (1993) 118:770-778.
55. RENKEMA TEJ, SCHOUTEN JP, KOETER GH, POSTMA DS: Effects of long term treatment with corticosteroids in COPD. Chest (1996) 109:1156-1162.
56. VAN GRUNSVEN PM, VAN SCHAYCK CP, DERENNE JP et al.: Long term effects of inhaled corticosteroids in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a meta-analysis. Thorax (1999) 54:7-14.
57. BOURBEAU J, ROULEAU MY, BOUCHER S: Randomised controlled trial of inhaled corticosteroids in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax (1998) 53:477-482.
58. VAN DER VALK P, MONNINKHOF E, VAN DER PALEN J, ZIELHUIS G, VAN HERWAARDEN C: Effect of discontinuation of inhaled corticosteroids in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: The COPE study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2002) 166:1358-1363.
59. PAGGIARO PL, DAHLE R, BAKRAN I, FRITH L, HOLLINGWORTH K, EFTHIMIOU J: Multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial of inhaled fluticasone propionate in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Lancet (1998) 351:773-780.
60. PAUWELS RA, LÖFDAHL C-G, LAITINEN LA et al.: Long-term treatment with inhaled budesonide in persons with mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease who continue smoking. N. Engl. J. Med. (1999) 340:1948-1953.
61. VESTBO J, SORENSEN T, LANGE P, BRIX A, TORRE P, VISKUM K: Long term effect of inhaled budesonide in mild and moderate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet (1999) 353:1819-1823.
62. BURGE PS, CALVERLEY PMA, JONES PW, SPENCER S, ANDERSON JA, MASLEN TK on behalf of the ISOLDE study investigators: Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled study of fluticasone propionate in patients with moderate to severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease : the ISOLDE trial. Br. Med. J. (2000) 320:1297-1303.
63. CALVERLEY PMA, SPENCER S, WILLITS LR, BURGE PS, JONES PW, on behalf of the ISOLDE study group: Withdrawal from treatment as an outcome in the ISOLDE study of COPD. Chest (2003) 124:1350-1356.
64. JONES PW, WILLITS LR, BURGE PS, CALVERLEY PMA, on behalf of the ISOLDE study investigators: Disease severity and the effect of fluticasone propionate on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations. Eur. Respir. J. (2003) 21:68-73.
65. THE LUNG HEALTH STUDY RESEARCH GROUP: Effect of inhaled triamcinolone on the decline in pulmonary function in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. (2000) 343:1902-1909.
66. SUTHERLAND ER, ALLMERS H, AYAS NT, VENN AJ, MARTIN RJ: Inhaled corticosteroids reduce the progression of airflow limitation in chronic obstructive pulpmonary disease: a meta-analysis. Thorax (2003) 58:937-941.
67. HIGHLAND KB, STANGE C, HEFFNER JE: Long-term effects of inhaled corticosteroids in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A meta-analysis. Ann. Intern. Med. (2003) 138:969-973.
68. WEIR DC, BALE GA, BRIGHT P, BURGE PS: A double-blind placebo-controlled study of the effect of inhaled beclomethasone dipropionate for 2 years in patients with nonasthmatic chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clin. Exp. Allergy (1999) 29:125-128.
69. HIGHLAND KB, STANGE C, HEFFNER JE: Correction: Inhaled corticosteroids in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann. Intern. Med. (2003) 139:873.
70. BURGE PS, CALVERLEY PMA, JONES PW, SPENCER S, ANDERSON JA, on behalf of the ISOLDE study group: Prednisolone response in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: results from the ISOLDE study. Thorax (2003) 58:654-658.
71. SHIM CS, WILLIAMS MH: Aerosol beclomethasone in patients with steroid-responsive chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Med. (1985) 78:655-658.
72. BOOTHMAN-BURRELL D, DELANY SG, FLANNERY EM, HANCOX RJ, TAYLOR DR: The efficacy of inhaled corticosteroids in the management of non asthmatic chronic airflow obstruction. N. Z. Med. J. (1997) 110:370-373.
73. CAZZOLA M, DI LORENZO G, DI PERNA F, CALDERARO F, TESTI R, CENTANNI S: Additive effects of salmeterol and fluticasone or theophylline in COPD. Chest (2000) 118:1576-1581.
74. 2 agonists) study group: Combined salmeterol and fluticasone in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet (2003) 361:449-456.
75. MAHLER DA, WIRE P, HORSTMAN D et al.: Effectiveness of fluticasone propionate and salmeterol combination delivered via the diskus device in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2002) 166:1084-1091.
76. SZAFRANSKI W, CUKIER A, RAMIREZ A et al.: Efficacy and safety of budesonide/formoterol in the management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur. Respir. J. (2003) 21:74-81.
77. CALVERLEY PM, BOONSAWAT W, CSEKE Z, ZHONG N, PETERSON S, OLSSON H: Maintenance therapy with budesonide and formoterol in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur. Respir. J. (2003) 22:912-919.
78. SIN DD, TU JV: Inhaled corticosteroids and the risk of mortality and readmission in elderly patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2001) 164:580-584.
79. SIN DD, MAN SF: Inhaled corticosteroids and survival in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: does the dose matter? Eur. Respir. J. (2003) 21:260-266.
80. SORIANO JB, VESTBO J, PRIDE NB, KIRI V, MADEN C, MAIER WC: Survival in COPD patients after regular use of fluticasone propionate and salmeterol in general practice. Eur. Respir. J. (2002) 20:819-825.
81. SORIANO JB, KIRI VA, PRIDE NB, VESTBO J: Inhaled corticosteroids with/without long-acting β-agonists reduce the risk of rehospitalization and death in COPD patients. Am. J. Resp. Med. (2003) 2:67-74.
82. SUISSA S: Effectiveness of inhaled corticosteroids in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: immortal time bias in observational studies. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2003) 168:49-53.
83. FAN VS, BRYSON CL, CURTIS JR et al.: Inhaled corticosteroids in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and risk of death and hospitalization. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2003) 168:1488-1494.
84. BOURBEAU J, ERNST P, COCKCOFT D, SUISSA S: Inhaled corticosteroids and hospitalisation due to exacerbation of COPD. Eur. Respir. J. (2003) 22:286-289.
85. SUISSA S: Inhaled steroids and mortality in COPD: bias from unaccounted immortal time. Eur. Respir. J. (2004) 23:391-395.
86. HARRISON TW, WISNIEWSKI A, HONOUR J, TATTERSFIELD AE: Comparison of the systemic effects of fluticasone propionate and budesonide given by dry powder inhaler in healthy and asthmatic subjects. Thorax (2001) 56:186-191.
87. LIPWORTH BJ: Systemic adverse effects of inhaled corticosteroid therapy. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch. Intern. Med. (1999) 159:941-955.
88. MCEVOY CE, NIEWOEHNER DE: Corticosteroids in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clin. Chest Med. (2000) 21:739-752.
89. ROLAND NJ, BHALLA RK, EARIS J: The local side effects of inhaled corticosteroids: current understanding and review of the literature. Chest (2004) 126:213-219.
90. WILSON AM, LIPWORTH BJ: Dose-response evaluation of the therapeutic index for inhaled budesonide in patients with mild-to moderate asthma. Am. J. Med. (2000) 108:269-275.
91. WONG J, BLACK P: Acute adrenal insufficiency associated with high-dose inhaled steroids. Br. Med. J. (1992) 304:1415.
92. LEAV BA, FANBURG B, Hadley S: Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis associated with high-dose inhaled fluticasone. N. Engl. J. Med. (2000) 343:586.
93. BAROUKY R, BADET M, DENIS MS, SOUBIROU JL, PHILIT F, GUERIN C: Inhaled corticosteroids in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and disseminated aspergillosis. Eur. J. Intern. Med. (2003) 14:380-382.
94. BOLLAND MJ, BAGG W, THOMAS MG, LUCAS JA, TICEHURST R, BLACK P: Cushing's syndrome due to interaction between inhaled corticosteroids and itraconazole. Ann. Pharmacother. (2004) 38:46-49.
95. CLEVENBERGH P, CORCOSTEGUI M, GERARD D et al.: Iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome in an HIV-infected patient treated with inhaled corticosteroids (fluticasone propionate) low dose ritonavir enhanced PI containing regimen. J. Infect. (2000) 44:194-195.
96. EICHENHORN MS, WISE RA, MADHOK TC et al. and the Lung Health Study Research Group: Lack of long-term adverse adrenal effects from inhaled triamcinolone: Lung Health Study II. Chest (2003) 124:57-62.
97. IONESCU AA, SCHOON E: Osteoporosis in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur. Respir. J. (2003) 22:64s-75s.
98. VAN STAA TP, LAAN RF, BARTON IP, COHEN S, REID DM, COOPER C: Bone density treshold and other predictors of vertebral fracture in patients receiving oral glucocorticoid therapy. Arthritis Rheum. (2003) 48:3224-3229.
99. WALSH LJ, LEWIS SA, WONG CA et al.: The impact of oral corticosteroid use on bone mineral density and vertebral fracture. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2002) 166:691-695.
100. SCANLON PD, CONNETT JE, WISE RA et al.: The Lung Health Study Research Group. Loss of Bone Density with Inhaled Triamcinolone in Lung Health Study II. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2004) 170:1302-1309.
101. BLAIS L, BOURBEAU J, SHEEHY O, LELORIER J: Inhaled corticosteroids in COPD: determinants of use and trends in patient persistence with treatment. Can. Respir. J. (2004) 11:27-32.
102. SUISSA S, BALTZAN M, KREMER R, ERNST P: Inhaled and nasal corticoid use and the risk of fracture. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2004) 169:83-88.
103. LEE TA, WEISS KB: Fracture risk associated with inhaled corticosteroid use in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2004) 169:855-859.
104. HUBBARD RB, SMITH CJP, SMEETH L, HARRISON TW, TATTERSFIELD AE: Inhaled corticosteroids and hip fracture. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. (2002) 166:1563-1566.
105. VAN STAA TP, LEUFKENS HGM, COOPER C: Use of inhaled corticosteroids and risk of fractures. J. Bone Miner. Res. (2001) 16:581-588.
106. LAU E, MAMDANI M, TU K: Inhaled or systemic corticosteroids and the risk of hospitalization for hip fracture among elderly women. Am. J. Med. (2003) 114:142-145.
107. LAROCHE M, PORTEAU L, CARON P et al.: Osteoporotic vertebral fractures in a man under high-dose inhaled glucocorticoid therapy. A case-report with a rewiew of the literature. Rev. Rhum. (1997) 64:267-270.
108. GARBE S, LELORIER J: Association of inhaled corticosteroid use with cataract extraction in elderly patients. JAMA (1998) 280:539-543.
109. CUMMING R, MITCHELL P, LEEDER S: Use of inhaled corticosteroids and the risk of cataracts. N. Engl. J. Med. (1997) 337:8-14.
110. JICK S, VASILAKIS-SCARAMOZZA C, MAIER W: The risk of cataract among users of inhaled steroids. Epidemiology (2001) 12:229-234.
111. SMEETH L, BOULIS M, HUBBARD R, FLETCHER AE: A population based case-control study of cataract and inhaled corticosteroids. Br. J. Ophthalmol. (2003) 87:1247-1251.
112. MAK VHF, MELCHOR R, SPIRO SG: Easy bruising as a side-effect of inhaled corticosteroids. Eur. Respir. J. (1992) 5:1068-1074.
113. TASHKIN DP, MURRAY HE, SKEANS M, MURRAY RP: Skin manifestations of inhaled corticosteroids in COPD patients. Results from the Lung Health Study II. Chest (2004) 126:1123-1133.
114. PETER E, BAKRI F, BALL DM, CHENEY RT, SEGAL BH: Invasive pulmonary filamentous fungal infection in a patient receiving inhaled corticosteroid therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2002) 35:54-56.
115. LIONAKIS MS, KONTOYIANNIS DP: Glucocorticoids and invasive fungal infections. Lancet (2003) 362:1828-1238.
116. HOGG JC, CHU F, UTOKAPARCH S, WOODS R et al.: The nature of small-airway obstruction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N. Engl J. Med. (2004) 350:2645-2653.