Is income inequality a determinant of population health? Part 1. A systematic review

Milbank Quarterly

Volumn 82, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 5-99

  Lynch, John ^a   Smith, George Davey ^b   Harper, Sam ^b   Hillemeier, Marianne ^b   Ross, Nancy ^b   Kaplan, George A ^b   Wolfson, Michael ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CANADA; COHORT ANALYSIS; COMMUNITY CARE; COMPARATIVE STUDY; CRIME; DEVELOPED COUNTRY; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; HEALTH; HEALTH CARE; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH CARE SYSTEM; HEALTH ECONOMICS; HOMICIDE; HUMAN; HYPOTHESIS; INCOME; LIFE EXPECTANCY; LOWEST INCOME GROUP; MORTALITY; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; POPULATION RESEARCH; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SOCIAL ASPECT; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIAL STRUCTURE; SOCIAL WELFARE; UNITED STATES; VIOLENCE;

AGED; DEVELOPED COUNTRIES; HEALTH STATUS; HUMANS; INCOME; LIFE EXPECTANCY; MIDDLE AGED; MORTALITY; POPULATION SURVEILLANCE; POVERTY; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; UNITED STATES; WORLD HEALTH;

EID: 1942535798     PISSN: 0887378X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.0887-378X.2004.00302.x     Document Type: Review

References (223)

1. Abbott, D.H., E.B. Keverne, F.B. Bercovitch, C.A. Shively, S.P. Mendoza, W. Saltzman, C.T. Snowdon, T.E. Ziegler, and M. Banjevic. 2003. Are Subordinates Always Stressed? A Comparative Analysis of Rank Differences in Cortisol Levels among Primates. Hormones and Behavior 43(1):67-82.
2. Adler, N.E., T. Boyce, M.A. Chesney, S. Cohen, S. Folkman, R.L. Kahn, and S.L. Syme. 1994. Socioeconomic-Status and Health - The Challenge of the Gradient. American Psychologist 49(1):15-24.
3. Agren, G. 2003. Sweden's New Public Health Policy. Stockholm: Swedish National Institute of Public Health.
4. Alesina, A., and E. La Ferrara. 2002. Who Trusts Others? Journal of Public Economics 85(2):207-34.
5. Atkinson, A.B., L. Rainwater, and T.M. Smeeding. 1995. Income Distribution in OECD Countries: Evidence from the Luxembourg Income Study. Paris: OECD.
6. Backlund, E., G. Rowe, J.W. Lynch, M. Wolfson, G.A. Kaplan, and P. Sorlie. 2003. Income Inequality and Mortality: A Multilevel Study of 521,247 Individuals in 50 U.S. States.
7. Backlund, E., P.D. Sorlie, and N.J. Johnson. 1996. The Shape of the Relationship between Income and Mortality in the United States. Evidence from the National Longitudinal Mortality Study. Annals of Epidemiology 6(1):12-20.
8. Backlund, E., P.D. Sorlie, and N.J. Johnson. 1999. A Comparison of the Relationships of Education and Income with Mortality: The National Longitudinal Mortality Study. Social Science & Medicine 49(10):1373-84.
9. Bandura, A. 1986. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
10. Beebe-Dimmer, J., J.W. Lynch, G. Turell, S. Lustgarten, T. Raghunathan, and G.A. Kaplan. 2004. Childhood and Adult Socioeconomic Conditions and 31-Year Mortality Risk in Women. American Journal of Epidemiology. In press.
11. Bennett, J. 2003. Investment in Population Health in Five OECD Countries. Paris: OECD Health Working Paper no. 2.
12. Benyamini, Y., and E.L. Idler. 1999. Community Studies Reporting Association between Self-Rated Health and Mortality - Additional Studies, 1995 to 1998. Research on Aging 21(3):392-401.
13. Blakely, T., J. Atkinson, and D. O'Dea. 2003. No Association of Income Inequality with Adult Mortality within New Zealand: A Multi-Level Study of 1.4 Million 25-64 Year Olds. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 57(4):279-84.
14. Blakely, T.A., and I. Kawachi. 2002. Education Does Not Explain Association between Income Inequality and Health. BMJ 324(7349):1336.
15. Blakely, T.A., B.P. Kennedy, R. Glass, and I. Kawachi. 2000. What Is the Lag Time between Income Inequality and Health Status? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 54(4):318-9.
16. Blakely, T.A., B.P. Kennedy, and I. Kawachi. 2001. Socioeconomic Inequality in Voting Participation and Self-Rated Health. American Journal of Public Health 91(1):99-104.
17. Blakely, T.A., K. Lochner, and I. Kawachi. 2002. Metropolitan Area Income Inequality and Self-Rated Health - A Multi-Level Study. Social Science & Medicine 54(1):65-77.
18. Blane, D., G. Davey Smith, and M. Bartley. 1993. Social Selection: What Does It Contribute to Social Class Differences in Health? Sociology of Health and Illness 15:1-15.
19. Bobak, M., H. Pikhart, R. Rose, C. Hertzman, and M. Marmot. 2000. Socioeconomic Factors, Material Inequalities, and Perceived Control in Self-Rated Health: Cross-Sectional Data from Seven Post-Communist Countries. Social Science & Medicine 51(9):1343-50.
20. Brodish, P.H., M. Massing, and H.A. Tyroler. 2000. Income Inequality and All-Cause Mortality in the 100 Counties of North Carolina. Southern Medical Journal 93(4):386-91.
21. Bunker, J.P., H.S. Frazier, and F. Mosteller. 1994. Improving Health: Measuring Effects of Medical Care. Milbank Quarterly 72(2):225-58.
22. Caldwell, J.C. 1986. Routes to Low Mortality in Poor Countries. Population and Development Review 12:171-219.
23. Cavelaars, A.E., A.E. Kunst, J.J. Geurts, R. Crialesi, L. Grotvedt, U. Helmert, E. Lahelma, O. Lundberg, J. Matheson, A. Mielck, N.K. Rasmussen, E. Regidor, M. do Rosario-Giraldes, T. Spuhler, and J.P. Mackenbach. 2000. Educational Differences in Smoking: International Comparison. BMJ 320(7242):1102-7.
24. Chiang, T.L. 1999. Economic Transition and Changing Relation between Income Inequality and Mortality in Taiwan: Regression Analysis. BMJ 319(7218):1162-5.
25. Coburn, D. 2000. Income Inequality, Social Cohesion and the Health Status of Populations: The Role of Neo-Liberalism. Social Science & Medicine 51(1):135-46.
26. Cooper, R.S., J.F. Kennelly, R. Durazo-Arvizu, H.J. Oh, G. Kaplan, and J. Lynch. 2001. Relationship between Premature Mortality and Socioeconomic Factors in Black and White Populations of U.S. Metropolitan Areas. Public Health Reports 116(5):464-73.
27. Cummins, S., and S. Macintyre. 2002. "Food Deserts" - Evidence and Assumption in Health Policy Making. BMJ 325(7361):436-8.
28. Daly, M.C., G.J. Duncan, G.A. Kaplan, and J.W. Lynch. 1998. Macro-to-Micro Links in the Relation between Income Inequality and Mortality. Milbank Quarterly 76(3):315-39.
29. Daly, M., M. Wilson, and S. Vasdev. 2001. Income Inequality and Homicide Rates in Canada and the United States. Canadian Journal of Criminology - Revue canadienne de criminologie 43(2):219-36.
30. D'Amicis, A., F. Faggiano, and A. Saba. 1994. La distribuzione sociale dello stato nutrizionale in Italia negli anni '80. In L'equità nella salute in Italia, edited by G. Costa and F. Faggiano, 199-210. Milano: Franco Angeli.
31. Daniels, N., B. Kennedy, and I. Kawachi. 2000. Is Inequality Bad for Our Health? Boston: Beacon Press.
32. Davey Smith, G., Y. Ben-Shlomo, and J.W. Lynch. 2002. Lifecourse Approaches to Inequalities in Coronary Heart Disease Risk. In Stress and the Heart: Psychosocial Pathways to Coronary Heart Disease, edited by S. Stansfield and M. Marmot, 20-49-London: British Medical Journal Books.
33. Davey Smith, G., and M. Egger. 1996. Commentary: Understanding It All - Health, Meta-Theories, and Mortality Trends. BMJ 313(7072):1584-5.
34. Davey Smith, G., D. Gunnell, and Y. Ben-Shlomo. 2001. Life-Course Approaches to Socio-Economic Differentials in Cause-Specific Adult Mortality. In Poverty, Inequality, and Health, edited by D.A. Leon and G. Walt, 88-124. New York: Oxford University Press.
35. Davey Smith, G., C. Hart, D. Hole, P. MacKinnon, C. Gillis, G. Watt, D. Blane, and V. Hawthorne. 1998. Education and Occupational Social Class: Which Is the More Important Indicator of Mortality Risk? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 52:153-60.
36. Davey Smith, G., and J.W. Lynch. 2004. Socioeconomic Differentials. In A Lifecourse Approach to Chronic Disease Epidemiology, 2nd ed., edited by D. Kuh and Y. Ben-Shlomo. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
37. Davey Smith, G., J.D. Neaton, D. Wentworth, R. Stamler, and J. Stamler for the MRFIT Research Group. 2003. Mortality Differentials between Black and White Men in the US: Contribution of Income and Other Risk Factors among Men Screened for the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT). In Health Inequalities: Lifecourse Approaches, edited by G. Davey Smith, 327-56. Bristol, England: Policy Press.
38. Deaton, A. 2002. Commentary: The Convoluted Story of International Studies of Inequality and Health. International Journal of Epidemiology 31(3):546-9.
39. Deaton, A., and D. Lubotsky. 2003. Mortality, Inequality and Race in American Cities and States. Social Science & Medicine 56(6):1139-53.
40. Diez-Roux, A.V. 1998. Bringing Context Back into Epidemiology: Variables and Fallacies in Multilevel Analysis. American Journal of Public Health 88(2):216-22.
41. Diez-Roux, A.V., B.G. Link, and M.E. Northridge. 2000. A Multilevel Analysis of Income Inequality and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors. Social Science & Medicine 50(5):673-87.
42. Diez-Roux, A.V., F.J. Nieto, L. Caulfield, H.A. Tyroler, R.L. Watson, and M. Szklo. 1999. Neighbourhood Differences in Diet: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 53(1):55-63.
43. Duleep, H.O. 1995. Mortality and Income Inequality among Economically Developed Countries. Social Secutiry Bulletin 58(2):34-50.
44. Dunn, J.R., and M.V. Hayes. 1999. Identifying Social Pathways for Health Inequalities. The Role of Housing. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 896:399-402.
45. Dunn, J.R., and M.V. Hayes. 2000. Social Inequality, Population Health, and Housing: A Study of Two Vancouver Neighborhoods. Social Science & Medicine 51(4):563-87.
46. Easterlin, R.A. 1999. How Beneficent Is the Market? A Look at the Modern History of Mortality. European Review of Economic History 3:257-94.
47. Ecob, R., and G. Davey Smith. 1999. Income and Health: What Is the Nature of the Relationship? Social Science & Medicine 48(5):693-705.
48. Editor's Choice. 1996. BMJ 312(7037).
49. Ellaway, A., and S. Macintyre. 2000. Shopping for Food in Socially Contrasting Locations. British Food Journal 102(1):52-9.
50. Ellison, G.T.H. 2002. Letting the Gini out of the Bottle? Challenges Facing the Relative Income Hypothesis. Social Science & Medicine 54(4):561-76.
51. Fiscella, K., and P. Franks. 1997. Poverty or Income Inequality as Predictor of Mortality: Longitudinal Cohort Study. BMJ 314(7096):1724-7.
52. Fiscella, K., and P. Franks. 2000. Individual Income, Income Inequality, Health, and Mortality: What Are the Relationships? Health Services Research 35(1, part 2):307-18.
53. Flegg, A.T. 1979. Role of Inequality of Income in the Determination of Birth-Rates. Population Studies - A Journal of Demography 33(3):457-77.
54. Flegg, A.T. 1982. Inequality of Income, Illiteracy and Medical-Care as Determinants of Infant-Mortality in Underdeveloped-Countries. Population Studies - A Journal of Demography 36(3):441-58.
55. Franzini, L., J. Ribble, and W. Spears. 2001. The Effects of Income Inequality and Income Level on Mortality Vary by Population Size in Texas Counties. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 42(4):373-87.
56. Franzini, L., and W. Spears. 2003. Contributions of Social Context to Inequalities in Years of Life Lost to Heart Disease in Texas, USA. Social Science & Medicine 57(10):1847-61.
57. Galea, S., J. Ahern, D. Vlahov, P.O. Coffin, C. Fuller, A.C. Leon, and K. Tardiff. 2003. Income Distribution and Risk of Fatal Drug Overdose in New York City Neighborhoods. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 70(2):139-48.
58. Geronimus, A.T., and J. Bound. 1998. Use of Census-Based Aggregate Variables to Proxy for Socioeconomic Group: Evidence from National Samples. American Journal of Epidemiology 148(5):475-86.
59. Goldin, C., and L.F. Katz. 1998. The Origins of State-Level Differences in the Public Provision of Higher Education: 1890-1940. American Economic Review 88(2):303-8.
60. Goldin, C., and L.F. Katz. 1999. The Shaping of Higher Education: The Formative Years in the United States, 1890 to 1940. Journal of Economic Perspectives 13(1):37-62.
61. González, C.A., S. Argilaga, A. Agudo, P. Amiano, A. Barricarte, J.M. Beguiristain, M.D. Chirlaque, M. Dorronsoro, C. Martinez, C. Navarro, J.R. Quirós, M. Rodriguez, and M.J. Tormo. 2002. Sociodemographic Differences in Adherence to Mediterranean Dietary Pattern in the Spanish Population. Gaceta Sanitaria 16:214-21.
62. Gravelle, H. 1998. How Much of the Relation between Population Mortality and Unequal Distribution of Income Is a Statistical Artefact? BMJ 316(7128):382-5.
63. Gravelle, H., J. Wildman, and M. Sutton. 2002. Income, Income Inequality and Health: What Can We Learn from Aggregate Data? Social Science & Medicine 54(4):577-89.
64. Hales, S., P. Howden-Chapman, C. Salmond, A. Woodward, and J. Mackenbach. 1999. National Infant Mortality Rates in Relation to Gross National Product and Distribution of Income. Lancet 354:2047.
65. Health Canada. 1999. Toward a Healthy Future: Second Report on the Health of Canadians. Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada.
66. Henderson, C., X. Liu, A.V. Diez-Roux, B.G. Link, and D. Hasin. 2004. The Effects of U.S. State Income Inequality and Alcohol Policies on Symptoms of Depression and Alcohol Dependence. Social Science & Medicine. In press.
67. Hillemeier, M.M., J. Lynch, S. Harper, T. Raghunathan, and G.A. Kaplan. 2003. Relative or Absolute Standards for Child Poverty: A State-Level Analysis of Infant and Child Mortality. American Journal of Public Health 93(4):652-7.
68. Holtgrave, D.R., and R.A. Crosby. 2003. Social Capital, Poverty, and Income Inequality as Predictors of Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, Chlamydia and AIDS Case Rates in the United States. Sexually Transmitted Infections 79(1):62-4.
69. Howard, G., R.T. Anderson, G. Russell, V.J. Howard, and G.L. Burke. 2000. Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Cause-Specific Mortality. Annals of Epidemiology 10(4):214-23.
70. Howden-Chapman, P., and M. Tobias, eds. 2000. Social Inequalities in Health: New Zealand 1999. Wellington: Ministry of Health.
71. Hsieh, C.C., and M.D. Pugh. 1993. Poverty, Income Inequality, and Violent Crime: A Meta-Analysis of Recent Aggregate Data Studies. Criminal Justice Review 18(2):182-202.
72. Idler, E.L., and Y. Benyamini. 1997. Self-Rated Health and Mortality: A Review of Twenty-seven Community Studies. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 38(1):21-37.
73. Judge, K. 1995. Income Distribution and Life Expectancy: A Critical Appraisal. BMJ 311(7015):1282-7.
74. Judge, K., J.A. Mulligan, and M. Benzeval. 1998. Income Inequality and Population Health. Social Science & Medicine 46(4-5):567-79.
75. Kahn, H.S., L.M. Tatham, E.R. Pamuk, and C.W. Heath, Jr. 1998. Are Geographic Regions with High Income Inequality Associated with Risk of Abdominal Weight Gain? Social Science & Medicine 47(1):1-6.
76. Kahn, R.S., P.H. Wise, B.P. Kennedy, and I. Kawachi. 2000. State Income Inequality, Household Income, and Maternal Mental and Physical Health: Cross Sectional National Survey. BMJ 321(7272):1311-5.
77. Kaplan, G.A., E.R. Pamuk, J.W. Lynch, R.D. Cohen, and J.L. Balfour. 1996. Inequality in Income and Mortality in the United States: Analysis of Mortality and Potential Pathways. BMJ 312(7037):999-1003 (published erratum appears in BMJ 312[1996]:1253).
78. Kautto, M., H. Uusitalo, J. Fritzell, B. Hvinden, and J. Kvist, eds. 2001. Nordic Welfare States in the European Context. London: Routledge.
79. Kawachi, I., and B.P. Kennedy. 1997. The Relationship of Income Inequality to Mortality: Does the Choice of Indicator Matter? Social Science and Medicine 45:1121-7.
80. Kawachi, I., and B.P. Kennedy. 2002. Health of Nations. Why Inequality Is Harmful to Your Health. New York: New Press.
81. Kawachi, I., B.P. Kennedy, K. Lochner, and D. Prothrow-Stith. 1997. Social Capital, Income Inequality, and Mortality. American Journal of Public Health 87(9):1491-8.
82. Kawachi, I., S.V. Subramanian, and N. Almeida-Filho. 2002. A Glossary for Health Inequalities. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 56(9):647-52.
83. Kennedy, B.P., I. Kawachi, R. Glass, and D. Prothrow-Stith. 1998. Income Distribution, Socioeconomic Status, and Self Rated Health in the United States: Multilevel Analysis. BMJ 317(7163):917-21.
84. Kennedy, B.P., I. Kawachi, and D. Prothrow-Stith. 1996. Income Distribution and Mortality: Cross Sectional Ecological Study of the Robin Hood Index in the United States. BMJ 312(7037):1004-7 (published erratum appears in BMJ 312[1996]:1194).
85. Kennedy, B.P., I. Kawachi, D. Prothrow-Stith, K. Lochner, and V. Gupta. 1998. Social Capital, Income Inequality, and Firearm Violent Crime. Social Science & Medicine 47(1):7-17 (published erratum appears in Social Science & Medicine 47[1998]:1637).
86. Kessler, R.C. 2000. Psychiatric Epidemiology: Selected Recent Advances and Future Directions. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 78(4):464-74.
87. Krieger, N. 2001. Theories for Social Epidemiology in the 21st Century: An Ecosocial Perspective. International Journal of Epidemiology 30(4):668-77.
88. Krieger, N., J.T. Chen, P.D. Waterman, M.-J. Soobader, S.V. Subramanian, and R. Carson. 2002. Geocoding and Monitoring of U.S. Socioeconomic Inequalities in Mortality and Cancer Incidence: Does the Choice of Area-Based Measure and Geographic Level Matter? The Public Health Disparities Geocoding Project. American Journal of Epidemiology 156(5):471-82.
89. Kunitz, S. 1990. The Value of Particularism in the Study of the Cultural, Social and Behavioural Determinants of Mortality. In Health Transition: The Cultural, Social, Behavioural Determinants of Health, edited by J. Caldwell, S. Findley, P. Caldwell, G. Santow, W. Cosford, J. Braid, and D. Broers-Freemn, 92-109. Canberra: Australian National University Press.
90. Kunitz, S. 1994. Disease and Social Diversity. New York: Oxford University Press.
91. Kunitz, S. 2001. Acounts of Social Capital: The Mixed Health Effects of Personal Communities and Voluntary Groups. In Poverty, Inequality and Health, edited by D. Leon and G. Walt, 159-74. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
92. Kunst, A.E., F. Groenhof, J.P. Mackenbach, and EU Working Group on Socioeconomic Inequalities in Health. 1998. Occupational Class and Cause Specific Mortality in Middle Aged Men in 11 European Countries: Comparison of Population Based Studies. BMJ 316:1636-42.
93. Laporte, A. 2002. A Note on the Use of a Single Inequality Index in Testing the Effect of Income Distribution on Mortality. Social Science & Medicine 55(9):1561-70.
94. Laporte, A., and B.S. Ferguson. 2003. Income Inequality and Mortality: Time Series Evidence from Canada. Health Policy 66(1):107-17.
95. LeClere, F.B., and M.J. Soobader. 2000. The Effect of Income Inequality on the Health of Selected U.S. Demographic Groups. American Journal of Public Health 90(12):1892-7.
96. Lee, M.R., and W.B. Bankston. 1999. Political Structure, Economic Inequality, and Homicide: A Cross-National Analysis. Deviant Behavior 20(1):27-55.
97. Legrand, J. 1987. Inequalities in Health - Some International Comparisons. European Economic Review 31(1-2):182-91.
98. Leon, D.A. 1998. Commentary: Unequal Inequalities across Europe. BMJ 316:1642.
99. Leon, D.A. 2001. Common Threads: Underlying Components of Inequalities in Mortality between and within Countries. In Poverty, Inequality and Health, edited by D.A. Leon and G. Walt, 58-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
100. Levy, F., and R.J. Murnane. 1992. U.S. Earnings Levels and Earnings Inequality: A Review of Recent Trends and Proposed Explanations. Journal of Economic Literature 30(3):1333-81.
101. Lindert, P.H. 2000. When Did Inequality Rise in Britain and America? Journal of Income Distribution 9(1):11-25.
102. Link, B.G., and J. Phelan. 1995. Social Conditions as Fundamental Causes of Disease. Journal of Health & Social Behavior (suppl.):S80-94.
103. Lobmayer, P., and R. Wilkinson. 2000. Income, Inequality and Mortality in 14 Developed Countries. Sociology of Health & Illness 22(4):401-14.
104. Lobmayer, P., and R.G. Wilkinson. 2002. Inequality, Residential Segregation by Income, and Mortality in US Cities. Journal of Epidemiological and Community Health 56(3):183-7.
105. Lochner, K., E. Pamuk, D. Makuc, B.P. Kennedy, and I. Kawachi. 2001. State-Level Income Inequality and Individual Mortality Risk: A Prospective, Multilevel Study. American Journal of Public Health 91(3):385-91.
106. Lorant, V., I. Thomas, D. Deliege, and R. Tonglet. 2001. Deprivation and Mortality: The Implications of Spatial Autocorrelation for Health Resources Allocation. Social Science & Medicine 53(12):1711-9.
107. Lynch, J. 2000. Income Inequality and Health: Expanding the Debate. Social Science & Medicine 51(7):1001-5.
108. Lynch, J., and G. Davey Smith. 2002. Commentary: Income Inequality and Health: The End of the Story? International Journal of Epidemiology 31(3):549-51.
109. Lynch, J., and G. Davey Smith. 2003. Rates and States: Reflections on the Health of Nations. International Journal of Epidemiology 32(4):663-70.
110. Lynch, J., G. Davey Smith, M. Hillemeier, M. Shaw, T. Raghunthan, and G. Kaplan. 2001. Income Inequality, the Psychosocial Environment, and Health: Comparisons of Wealthy Nations. Lancet 358:194-200.
111. Lynch, J.W., G. Davey Smith, G.A. Kaplan, and J.S. House. 2000a. Income Inequality and Mortality: Importance to Health of Individual Income, Psychosocial Environment, or Material Conditions. BMJ 320(7243):1200-4.
112. Lynch, J., P. Due, C. Muntaner, and G. Davey Smith. 2000b. Social Capital - Is It a Good Investment Strategy for Public Health? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 54(6):404-8.
113. Lynch, J., S. Harper, and G. Davey Smith. 2003. Commentary: Plugging Leaks and Repelling Boarders - Where to Next for the SS Income Inequality? International Journal of Epidemiology 32(6):1029-36.
114. Lynch, J.W., and G. Kaplan. 2000. Socioeconomic Position. In Social Epidemiology, edited by L.F. Berkman and I. Kawachi, 13-35. New York: Oxford University Press.
115. Lynch, J.W., G.A. Kaplan, E.R. Pamuk, R.D. Cohen, K.E. Heck, J.L. Balfour, and I.H. Yen. 1998. Income Inequality and Mortality in Metropolitan Areas of the United States. American Journal of Public Health 88(7):1074-80.
116. Lynch, J.W., G.A. Kaplan, and J.T. Salonen. 1997. Why Do Poor People Behave Poorly? Variation in Adult Health Behaviours and Psychosocial Characteristics by Stages of the Socioeconomic Life-course. Social Science & Medicine 44(6):809-19.
117. Macinko, J.A., L. Shi, and B. Starfield. 2004. Wage Inequality, the Health System, and Infant Mortality in Wealthy Industrialized Countries, 1970-1996. Social Science & Medicine 58(2):279-92.
118. Macinko, J.A., L. Shi, B. Starfield, and J.T. Wulu. 2003. Income Inequality and Health: A Critical Review of the Literature. Medical Care Research and Review 60:407-52.
119. Mackenbach, J.P. 2002. Income Inequality and Population Health. BMJ 324(7328):1-2.
120. Mackenbach, J.P., A.E. Kunst, A.E. Cavelaars, F. Groenhof, J.J. Geurts, and the EU Working Group on Socioeconomic Inequalities in Health. 1997. Socioeconomic Inequalities in Morbidity and Mortality in Western Europe. Lancet 349(9066):1655-9.
121. Marmot, M., and M. Bobak. 2000. International Comparators and Poverty and Health in Europe. BMJ 321(7269):1124-8.
122. Marmot, M., and R.G. Wilkinson. 2001. Psychosocial and Material Pathways in the Relation between Income and Health: A Response to Lynch et al. BMJ 322(7296):1233-6.
123. Marmot, M., and R.G. Wilkinson, eds. 1999. Social Determinants of Health. New York: Oxford University Press.
124. Massey, D.S., G.A. Condran, and N.A. Denton. 1987. The Effect of Residential Segregation on Black Social and Economic Well-Being. Social Forces 66(1):29-56.
125. McGinnis, J.M., and W.H. Foege. 1993. Actual Causes of Death in the United States. Journal of the American Medical Association 270(18):2207-12.
126. Mclsaac, S., and R.G. Wilkinson. 1997. Income Distribution and Cause-Specific Mortality. European Journal of Public Health 7:45-53.
127. McKeown, T. 1976. The Modern Rise of Population. New York: Academic Press.
128. Mclaughlin, D.K., and C.S. Stokes. 2002. Income Inequality and Mortality in U.S. Counties: Does Minority Racial Concentration Matter? American Journal of Public Health 92(1):99-104.
129. Mclaughlin, D.K., C.S. Stokes, and A. Nonoyama. 2001. Residence and Income Inequality: Effects on Mortality among U.S. Counties. Rural Sociology 66(4):579-98.
130. McLeod, C.B., J.N. Lavis, C.A. Mustard, and G.L. Stoddart. 2003. Income Inequality, Household Income, and Health Status in Canada: A Prospective Cohort Study. American Journal of Public Health 93(8):1287-93.
131. Mellor, J.M., and J. Milyo. 2001. Reexamining the Evidence of an Ecological Association between Income Inequality and Health. Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 26(3):487-522.
132. Mellor, J.M., and J. Milyo. 2002. Income Inequality and Individual Health: Evidence from the Current Population Survey. Journal of Human Resources 37(3):510-39.
133. Mellor, J.M., and J. Milyo. 2003. Is Exposure to Income Inequality a Public Health Concern? Lagged Effects of Income Inequality on Individual and Population Health. Health Services Research 38:137-52.
134. Messias, E. 2003. Income Inequality, Illiteracy Rate, and Life Expectancy in Brazil. American Journal of Public Health 93(8):1294-6.
135. Messner, S.F., and K. Tardiff. 1986. Economic-Inequality and Levels of Homicide - An Analysis of Urban Neighborhoods. Criminology 24(2):297-317.
136. Morland, K., S. Wing, A. Diez-Roux, and C. Poole. 2002. Neighborhood Characteristics Associated with the Location of Food Stores and Food Service Places. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 22(1):23-9.
137. Muller, A. 2002. Education, Income Inequality, and Mortality: A Multiple Regression Analysis. BMJ 324(7328):23.
138. Muntaner, C. 1999. Teaching Social Inequalities in Health: Barriers and Opportunities. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 27(3):161-5.
139. Muntaner, C., J.W. Lynch, J.H. Lee, R. David, J. Benach, and C. Borrell. 2002. Economic Inequality, Working-Class Power, Social Capital, and Cause-Specific Mortality in Wealthy Countries. International Journal of Health Services 32:629-56.
140. National Center for Health Statistics. 2001. Age-Adjusted Death Rates for Selected Causes, Death Registration States, 1900-32, and United States, 1933-98. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/datawh/ statab/unpubd/mortabs/ hist293.htm (accessed July 30, 2001).
141. Navarro, V., and L.Y. Shi. 2001. The Political Context of Social Inequalities and Health. International Journal of Health Services 31(1):1-21.
142. Nguyen, V.-K., and K. Peschard. 2003. Anthropology, Inequality, and Disease: A Review. Annual Review of Anthropology 32:447-74.
143. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). 2001. The Well-Being of Nations: The Role of Human and Social Capital. Paris: OECD, Centre for Educational Research and Innovation.
144. Osler, M., U. Christensen, P. Due, R. Lund, I. Andersen, F. Diderichsen, and E. Prescott. 2003. Income Inequality and Ischaemic Heart Disease in Danish Men and Women. International Journal of Epidemiology 32(3):375-80.
145. Osler, M., E. Prescott, M. Gronbak, U. Christensen, P. Due, and G. Engholm. 2002. Income Inequality, Individual Income, and Mortality in Danish Adults: Analysis of Pooled Data from Two Cohort Studies. BMJ 324(7328):13.
146. Palli, D., A. Decarli, and A. Russo. 1999. Plasma Levels of Antioxidant Vitamins and Cholesterol in a Large Population Sample in Central Northern Italy. European Journal of Nutrition 38:90-8.
147. Pampel, F.C. 2002. Inequality, Diffusion, and the Status Gradient in Smoking. Social Problems 49(1):35-57.
148. Pampel, F.C., and V.K. Pillai. 1986. Patterns and Determinants of Infant Mortality in Developed Nations, 1950-1975. Demography 23(4):525-42.
149. Pampel, F.C., and C. Zimmer. 1989. Female Labour Force Activity and the Sex Differential in Mortality: Comparisons across Developed Nations, 1950-1980. European Journal of Population 5(3):281-304.
150. Pearce, N., and G. Davey Smith. 2003. Is Social Capital the Key to Inequalities in Health? American Journal of Public Health 93:122-9.
151. Pekkanen, J., J. Tuomilehto, A. Uutela, E. Vartiainen, and A. Nissinen. 1995. Social Class, Health Behaviour, and Mortality among Men and Women in Eastern Finland. BMJ 311(7005):589-93.
152. Persson, G., G. Bostrom, F. Diderichsen, G. Lindberg, B. Pettersson, M. Rosen, M. Stenbeck, and S. Wall. 2001. Health in Sweden. The National Public Health Report, 2001. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 29 (suppl. 58):199-218.
153. Pickett, K.E., and M. Pearl. 2001. Multilevel Analyses of Neighbourhood Socioeconomic Context and Health Outcomes: A Critical Review. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 55(2):111-22.
154. Plotnick, R.D., E. Smolensky, E. Evenhouse, and S. Reilly. 2000. The Twentieth Century Record of Inequality and Poverty in the United States. In The Twentieth Century, vol. 3 of The Cambridge Economic History of the United States, edited by S.L. Engerman and R.E. Gallman, 249-300. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
155. Popkin, B.M., A.M. Siega-Riz, and P.S. Haines. 1996. A Comparison of Dietary Trends among Racial and Socioeconomic Groups in the United States. New England Journal of Medicine 335(10):716-20.
156. Porta, M., C. Borrell, and J.L. Copete. 2002. Commentary: Theory in the Fabric of Evidence on the Health Effects of Inequalities in Income Distribution. International Journal of Epidemiology 31(3):543.
157. Preston, S.H. 1975. The Changing Relation between Mortality and Level of Economic Development. Population Studies 29:231-48.
158. Preston, S.H. 1976. Mortality Patterns in National Populations, with Special Reference to Recorded Causes of Death. New York: Academic Press.
159. Regidor, E., M.E. Calle, P. Navarro, and V. Dominguez. 2003. Trends in the Association between Average Income, Poverty and Income Inequality and Life Expectancy in Spain. Social Science & Medicine 56(5):961-71.
160. Regidor, E., P. Navarro, V. Dominguez, and C. Rodriguez. 1997. Inequalities in Income and Long Term Disability in Spain: Analysis of Recent Hypotheses Using Cross Sectional Study Based on Individual Data. BMJ 315(7116):1130-5.
161. Rodgers, G.B. 1979. Income and Inequality as Determinants of Mortality: An International Cross-Section Analysis. Population Studies 33:343-51 (reprinted in International Journal of Epidemiology 31[2002]:533-8).
162. Roos, E.B., T. Hirvonen, V. Mikkila, S. Karvonen, and M. Rimpela. 2001. Household Educational Level as a Determinant of Consumption of Raw Vegetables among Male and Female Adolescents. Preventive Medicine 33(4):282-91.
163. Rose, G. 1985. Sick Individuals and Sick Populations. International Journal of Epidemiology 14(1):32-8.
164. Ross, N.A., D. Dorling, J.R. Dunn, G. Hendricksson, J. Glover, and J. Lynch. 2002. Metropolitan Income Inequality and Working-Age Mortality: A Five-Country Analysis Using Comparable Data. Unpublished manuscript.
165. Ross, N.A., K. Nobrega, and J. Dunn. 2001. Income Segregation, Income Inequality and Mortality in North American Metropolitan Areas. GeoJournal 53:117-24.
166. Ross, N.A., M.C. Wolfson, J.R. Dunn, J.-M. Berthelot, G. Kaplan, and J. Lynch. 2000a. Author's Reply. BMJ 321:1532.
167. Ross, N.A., M.C. Wolfson, J.R. Dunn, J.-M. Berthelot, G.A. Kaplan, and J.W. Lynch. 2000b. Relation between Income Inequality and Mortality in Canada and in the United States: Cross-Sectional Assessment Using Census Data and Vital Statistics. BMJ 320:898-902.
168. Sanmartin, C., N.A. Ross, S. Tremblay, M. Wolfson, J.R. Dunn, and J. Lynch. 2003. Labour Market Income Inequality and Mortality in North American Metropolitan Areas. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 57(10):792-7.
169. Schofield, R., D.S. Reher, and A. Bideau. 1991. The Decline of Mortality in Europe. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
170. Schwartz, S., and R. Diez-Roux. 2001. Commentary: Causes of Incidence and Causes of Cases - A Durkheimian Perspective on Rose. International Journal of Epidemiology 30(3):435-9.
171. Sen, A.K. 1973. On Economic Inequality. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
172. Shi, L.Y., J. Macinko, B. Starfield, J.H. Xu, and R. Politzer. 2003. Primary Care, Income Inequality, and Stroke Mortality in the United States - A Longitudinal Analysis, 1985-1995. Stroke 34(8):1958-64.
173. Shi, L.Y., and B. Starfield. 2000. Primary Care, Income Inequality, and Self-Rated Health in the United States: A Mixed-Level Analysis. International Journal of Health Services 30(3):541-55.
174. Shi, L.Y., and B. Starfield. 2001. The Effect of Primary Care Physician Supply and Income Inequality on Mortality among Blacks and Whites in U.S. Metropolitan Areas. American Journal of Public Health 91(8):1246-50.
175. Shi, L.Y., B. Starfield, B. Kennedy, and I. Kawachi. 1999. Income Inequality, Primary Care, and Health Indicators. Journal of Family Practice 48(4):275-84.
176. Shi, L.Y., B. Starfield, R. Politzer, and J. Regan. 2002. Primary Care, Self-Rated Health, and Reductions in Social Disparities in Health. Health Services Research 37(3):529-50.
177. Shibuya, K., H. Hashimoto, and E. Yano. 2002. Individual Income, Income Distribution, and Self-Rated Health in Japan: Cross Sectional Analysis of Nationally Representative Sample. BMJ 324:16-9.
178. Sohler, N., P. Arno, C.J. Chang, J. Fang, and C. Schecter. 2003. Income Inequality and Infant Mortality in New York City. Journal of Urban Health-Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 80(4):650-65.
179. Soobader, M.J., and F.B. LeClere. 1999. Aggregation and the Measurement of Income Inequality: Effects on Morbidity. Social Science & Medicine 48(6):733-44.
180. Sooman, A., S. Macintyre, and A. Anderson. 1993. Scotland's Health -A More Difficult Challenge for Some? The Price and Availability of Healthy Foods in Socially Contrasting Localities in the West of Scotland. Health Bulletin 51(5):276-84.
181. Sorlie, P.D., E. Backlund, and J.B. Keller. 1995. U.S. Mortality by Economic, Demographic, and Social Characteristics - The National Longitudinal Mortality Study. American Journal of Public Health 85(7):949-56.
182. Stanistreet, D., A. Scott-Samuel, and M.A. Bellis. 1999. Income Inequality and Mortality in England. Journal of Public Health Medicine 21(2):205-7.
183. Steckel, R.H. 1983. Height and Per-Capita Income. Historical Methods 16(1):1-7.
184. Sturm, R., and C.R. Gresenz. 2002. Relations of Income Inequality and
185. Subramanian, S.V., T. Blakely, and I. Kawachi. 2003. Income Inequality as a Public Health Concern: Where Do We Stand? Commentary on "Is Exposure to Income Inequality a Public Health Concern?" Health Services Research 38:153-67.
186. Subramanian, S.V., I. Delgado, L. Jadue, J. Vega, and I. Kawachi. 2003. Income Inequality and Health: Multilevel Analysis of Chilean Communities. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 57(11):844-8.
187. Subramanian, S., and I. Kawachi. 2003. The Association between State Income Inequality and Worse Health Is Not Confounded by Race. International Journal of Epidemiology 32(6):1022-8.
188. Subramanian, S.V., I. Kawachi, and B.P. Kennedy. 2001. Does the State You Live in Make a Difference? Multilevel Analysis of Self-Rated Health in the U.S. Social Science & Medicine 53(1):9-19.
189. Szreter, S. 1988. The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c. 1850-1914: A Re-Interpretation of the Role of Public Health. Social History of Medicine 1(1):1-39.
190. Szreter, S. 2002a. Rethinking McKeown: The Relationship between Public Health and Social Change. American Journal of Public Health 92(5):722-5.
191. Szreter, S. 2002b. The State of Social Capital: Bringing Back in Power, Politics, and History. Theory and Society 31(5):573-621.
192. Szwarcwald, C.L., C.L.T. de Andrade, and F.I. Bastos. 2002. Income Inequality, Residential Poverty Clustering and Infant Mortality: A Study in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil. Social Science & Medicine 55(12):2083-92.
193. Szwarcwald, C.L., F.I. Bastos, F. Viacava, and C.L. de Andrade. 1999. Income Inequality and Homicide Rates in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil. American Journal of Public Health 89(6):845-80.
194. Turrell, G., B. Oldenburg, I. McGuffog, and R. Dent. 1999. Socioeconomic Determinants of Health: Towards a National Research Program and a Policy and Intervention Agenda. Canberra: Queensland University of Technology, School of Public Health, Ausinfo.
195. Veenstra, G. 2002a. Social Capital and Health (Plus Wealth, Income Inequality and Regional Health Governance). Social Science & Medicine 54(6):849-68.
196. Veenstra, G. 2002b. Income Inequality and Health - Coastal Communities in British Columbia, Canada. Canadian Journal of Public Health -Revue canadienne de santé publique 93(5):374-9.
197. Venter, J.C., M.D. Adams, E.W. Myers, et al. 2001. The Sequence of the Human Genome. Science 291(5507):1304-51.
198. Vleminckx, K., and T.M. Smeeding, eds. 2001. Child Well-Being, Child Poverty and Child Policy in Modern Nations. Bristol: Policy Press.
199. Wagstaff, A., and E. van Doorslaer. 2000. Income Inequality and Health: What Does the Literature Tell Us? Annual Review of Public Health 21:543-67.
200. Walberg, P., M. McKee, V. Shkolnikov, L. Chenet, and D.A. Leon. 1998. Economic Change, Crime, and Mortality Crisis in Russia: Regional Analysis. BMJ 317(7154):312-8.
201. Waldmann, R.J. 1992. Income-Distribution and Infant-Mortality. Quarterly Journal of Economics 107(4):1283-302.
202. Weatherby, N.L., C.B. Nam, and L.W. Isaac. 1983. Development, Inequality, Health Care, and Mortality at the Older Ages: A Cross-National Analysis. Demography 20(1):27-43.
203. Weich, S., G. Lewis, and S.P. Jenkins. 2001. Income Inequality and the Prevalence of Common Mental Disorders in Britain. British Journal of Psychiatry 178:222-7.
204. Weich, S., G. Lewis, and S.P. Jenkins. 2002. Income Inequality and Self Rated Health in Britain. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 56(6):436-41.
205. Wen, M., C.R. Browning, and K.A. Cagney. 2003. Poverty, Affluence, and Income Inequality: Neighborhood Economic Structure and Its Implications for Health. Social Science & Medicine 57(5):843-60.
206. Wennemo, I. 1993. Infant-Mortality, Public-Policy and Inequality -A Comparison of 18 Industrialized Countries 1950-85. Sociology of Health & Illness 15(4):429-46.
207. Wildman, J., H. Gravelle, and M. Sutton. 2003. Health and Income Inequality: Attempting to Avoid the Aggregation Problem. Applied Economics 35(9):999-1004.
208. Wilkinson, R.G. 1986. Income and Mortality. In Class and Health: Research and Longitudinal Data, edited by R.G. Wilkinson, 88-114. London: Tavistock.
209. Wilkinson, R.G. 1992. Income Distribution and Life Expectancy. BMJ 304(6820):165-8.
210. Wilkinson, R.G. 1997. Socioeconomic Determinants of Health. Health Inequalities: Relative or Absolute Material Standards? BMJ 314(7080):591-5.
211. Wilkinson, R.G. 1999a. The Culture of Inequality. In The Society and Population Health Reader - Income Inequality and Health, edited by I. Kawachi, B.P. Kennedy, and R.G. Wilkinson, 492-8. New York: New Press.
212. Wilkinson, R.G. 1999b. Putting the Picture Together: Prosperity, Redistribution, Health, and Welfare. In Social Determinants of Health, edited by M. Marmot and R.G. Wilkinson, 256-74. New York: Oxford University Press.
213. Wilkinson, R.G. 2000. Mind the Gap. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
214. Wilkinson, R.G. 2002. Commentary: Liberty, Fraternity, Equality. International Journal of Epidemiology 31(3):538.
215. Wilkinson, R.G., I. Kawachi, and B. Kennedy. 1998. Mortality, the Social Environment, Crime and Violence. Social Health and Illness 20(5):578-97.
216. Wilson, M., and M. Daly. 1997. Life Expectancy, Economic Inequality, Homicide, and Reproductive Timing in Chicago Neighbourhoods. BMJ 314(7089):1271.
217. Winter, J.M. 1988. Public Health and the Extension of Life Expectancy in England and Wales, 1901-1960. In The Political Economy of Health and Welfare, edited by M. Keynes, D.A. Coleman, and N.H. Dimsdale, 184-203. London: Macmillan.
218. Wolfson, M., G. Kaplan, J. Lynch, N. Ross, and E. Backlund. 1999. Relation between Income Inequality and Mortality: Empirical Demonstration. BMJ 319(7215):953-5.
219. Wolfson, M., G. Rowe, J.F. Gentleman, and M. Tomiak. 1993. Career Earnings and Death: A Longitudinal Analysis of Older Canadian Men. Journal of Gerontology 48(4):S167-79.
220. Wong, M.D., M.F. Shapiro, W.J. Boscardin, and S.L. Ettner. 2002. Contribution of Major Diseases to Disparities in Mortality. New England Journal of Medicine 347(20):1585-92.
221. World Bank. 2002. The 2002 WorldDevlopment Indicators CD-ROM. Ver. 4.2. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
222. World Health Organization (WHO) International Consortium of Psychiatric Epidemiology. 2000. Cross-National Comparisons of the Prevalences and Correlates of Mental Disorders. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 78(4):413-26.
223. Yankauer, A. 1950. The Relationship of Fetal and Infant Mortality to Residential Segregation. American Sociological Review 15(5):644-8.