The role of cytokines in cancer cachexia

Medicinal Research Reviews

Volumn 19, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 223-248

  Argilés, Josep M ^a   López Soriano, Francisco J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BARCELONA   (Spain)

Author keywords

Acute phase; Cancer cachexia; Cytokines; Metabolic changes; Muscle wasting

Indexed keywords

CYTOKINE; GAMMA INTERFERON; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 6; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ANEMIA; ANOREXIA; ASTHENIA; CACHEXIA; CANCER; CANCER SURVIVAL; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; ENDOCRINE DISEASE; HUMAN; LIPID STORAGE; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PROTEIN DEPLETION; REVIEW; WASTING SYNDROME; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

CACHEXIA; CYTOKINES; HUMANS; NEOPLASMS;

EID: 17444443934     PISSN: 01986325     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1128(199905)19:3<223::AID-MED3>3.0.CO;2-N     Document Type: Review

References (234)

1. Warren, S. The immediate cause of death in cancer. Am J Med Sci 1932;184:610-613.
2. Nixon DW, Heymsfield SB, Kutner MM, Ansley J, Lawson, DH. Am J Med Protein-caloric undernutrition in hospitalized cancer patients. 1980;68:491-497.
3. De Wys, WD. Management of cancer cachexia. Semin Oncol 1985;12:452-460.
4. Argilés JM, Alvarez B, López-Soriano FJ. The metabolic basis of cancer cachexia. Med Res Rev 1997;17:477-498.
5. Argilés, JM, García-Martínez, C, Llovera M, López-Soriano FJ. The role of cyotkines in muscle wasting: its relation with cancer cachexia. Med Res Rev 1992;12:637-652.
6. Adams R, Victor, M. In: Adams R, Victor M editors. Principles of neurology. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1981. pp. 341-345.
7. Houten L, Reilley AA. An investigation of the cause of death from cancer. J Surg Oncol 1980;13,111-116.
8. McBride W, Jackman JD, Grayburn PA. Prevalence and clinical characteristics of a high cardiac output states in patients with multiple myeloma. Am J Med 1990;89:21-24.
9. Argilés JM, Azcón-Bieto The metabolic environment of cancer. Mol Cell Biochem 1988;81:3-17.
10. Davis JD, Levine MW. A model for the control of ingestion. Psychol Rev 1977;84:379-412.
11. De Wys WD. Anorexia as a general effect of cancer. Cancer 1979;43:2013-2019.
12. Opara EI, Laviano A, Meguid MM, Yang Z. Correlation between food intake and CSF IL-1α in anorectic tumor bearing rats. Neuroreport 1995;6:750-752.
13. Plata-Salamán CR. Anorexia during acute and chronic disease. Nutrition 1996;12:69-78.
14. Stovroff MC, Fraker, DL, Swedenborg JA, Norton JA. Cachectin/tumor necrosis factor, a possible mediator of cancer anorexia in the rat. Cancer Res 1988;48:920-925.
15. Plata-Salamán C, Borkoski JP. Chemokines/intercrines and central regulation of feeding. Am J Physiol 1994;266:R1711-R1515.
16. Rivera S, López-Soriano FJ, Azcón-Bieto J, Argilés JM. Blood amino acid compartmentation in mice bearing Lewis lung carcinomes. Cancer Res 1987;47:5644-5646.
17. García-Martínez C, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Alanine metabolism in rats bearing the Yoshida AH-130 ascites hepatoma. Cancer Lett 1994;87:123-130.
18. Rossi-Fanelli F, Cangiano C. Increased availability of tryptophan in brain as a common pathogenic mechanism for anorexia associated with different diseases. Nutrition 1991;7:364-367.
19. Argilés JM, López-Soriano FJ. The energy stae of tumor-bearing rats. J Biol Chem 1991;266:2978-2982.
20. López-Soriano J, Argilés JM, López-Soriano FJ, Lipid metabolism in rats bearing the Yoshida AH-130 ascites hepatoma. Mol Cell Biochem 1996;165:17-23.
21. Chance WT, Zhang FS, Fischer JE. Hyperammonemia and anorexia in Morris hepatoma-bearing rats. Physiol Behav 1991;50:397-401.
22. Chance WT, Zhang FS, Fischer JE. Methionine sulfoximine intensifies cancer anorexia. Pharmacol Physiol Behav 1991;39:115-118.
23. Grunfeld C, Zhao C, Fuller J, Pollock A, Moser A, Friedman J, Feingold KR. Endotoxin and cytokines induce expression of leptin, the ob gene product, in hamsters. A role for leptin in the anorexia or infection. J Clin Invest 1996;97:2152-2157.
24. Sarraf P, Frederich RC, Turner EM, Ma G, Jaskowiak NT, Rivet III DJ, Flier JS, Lowell BB, Fraker DL, Alexander HR. Multiple cytokines and acute inflammation raise mouse leptin levels: potential role in inflammatory anorexia. J Exp Med 1997;185:171-175.
25. López-Soriano J, Carbó N, Tessitore L, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Leptin and tumour growth in the rat. Int J Cancer. In press.
26. Simons JP, Schols AM, Campfield LA, Wouters EF, Saris WH. Plasma concentration of total leptin and human lung-cancer-associated cachexia. Clin Sci 1997;93:273-277.
27. Chance WT, Balasubraniam A, Sheriff S, Fischer JE. Possible role of neuropeptide Y in experimental cancer anorexia. Adv Exp Med Biol 1994;354:185-201.
28. Sonti G, Ilyin SE, Plata-Salamán CR. Neuropeptide Y blocks and reverses interleukin-1β-induced anorexia in rats. Peptides 1996;17: 517-520.
29. Copeland EM, Macfayder BV, Dudrick SJ. Effect of hyperalimentation in established delayed hypersensibility in the cancer patient. Ann Surg 1976;184:60-64.
30. Heber D, Byerley LO, Chi J, Grosvenor M, Bergman RN, Coleman N, Chlebowski RT. Pathophysiology of malnutrition in the adult cancer patient. Cancer 1988;58:1867-1873.
31. Evans WK, Makuch R, Clamon GH, Feld R, Weiner RS, Moran E, Blum R, Shepherd FA, Jeejeebhoy KN, Dewys WD. Limited impact of total parenteral nutrition on nutritional status during treatment for small cell lung cancer. Cancer Res 1985;45:3347-3353.
32. Lowry SF. Cancer cachexia revisited: old problems and new perspectives. Eur J Cancer 1991; 27:1-3.
33. Balducci L, Hardy C. Cancer and malnutrition: a critical interaction. A review. Am J Hematol 1985;18:91-103.
34. Mahony SM, Tisdale MJ. Induction of weight loss and metabolic alterations by human recombinant tumour necrosis factor. Br J Cancer 1988;58:345-349.
35. Socher SH, Friedman A, Martinez D. Recombinant human tumour necrosis factor induces acute reductions in food intake and body weight in mice. J Exp Med 1988;167:1211-1227.
36. Stovroff MC, Fraker DL, Swedenborg JA, Norton JA. Cachectin/tumor necrosis factor: a possible mediator of cancer anorexia in the rat. Cancer Res 1988;48:4567-4572.
37. Mullen BJ, Harris RBS, Patton JS, Martin RJ. Recombinant tumor necrosis factor-α chronically administered in rats: lack of cachectic effect. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1990;193:318-325.
38. Tracey KL, Wei H, Manogue KR, Fong Y, Hesse DG, Nguyen HT, Kuo GC, Beutler B, Cotran RS, Cerami A, Lowry SF. Cachectin/tumor necrosis factor induces cachexia, anemia and inflammation. J Exp Med 1988;167:1211-1227.
39. Oliff A, Defeo-Jones D, Boyer M, Martinez D, Kiefer D, Vuocolo G, Wolfe A, Socher SH. Tumors secreting human TNF/cachectin induce cachexia in mice. Cell 1987;50:555-563.
40. Scuderi, P, Lam KS, Ryan KJ, Petersen E, Sterling KE, Finley PR, Ray CG, Slymen DJ, Salmon SE. Raised serum levels of tumour necrosis factor in parasitic infections. Lancet 1986;2:1364-1365.
41. Grau GE, Fajardo LF, Piguet PF, Allet B, Lambert PH, Vassalli P. Tumor necrosis factor (cachectin) as an essential mediator in murine cerebral malaria. Science 1987;237:1210-1212.
42. Waage A, Espevik T, Lamvik J. Detection of tumor necrosis factor-like cytotocity in serum from patients with septicaemia but not from untreated cancer patients. Scan J Immunol 1986;24:739-743.
43. Beutler B, Milsark IV, Cerami A. Passive immunization against cachectin/tumor necrosis factor protects mice from lethal effect of endotoxin. Science 1985;229:869-871.
44. Tracey KJ, Fong Y, Hesse DG, Manogue KR, Lee AT, Kuo GC, Lowry SF, Cerami A. Anticachectin/TNF monoclonal antibodies prevent septic shock during lethal bacteraemia. Nature 1987;330:662-664.
45. Michie HR, Manogue KR, Spriggs DR, Revhaug A, O'Dwyer S, Dinarello CA, Cerami, A, Wolff SM, Wilmore DW. Detection of circulating tumor necrosis factor after endotoxin administration. N Engl J Med 1988;318:1481-1486.
46. Balkwill F, Burke F, Talbot D, Tavernier J, Osborne R, Naylor S, Durbin H, Fiers W. Evidence for tumour necrosis factor/cachectin production in cancer. Lancet 1987;2:1229-1232.
47. Saarinen UM, Kosfelo EK, Teppo AM, Simes MA. Tumor necrosis factor in children with malignancies. Cancer Res 1990;50: 592-595.
48. Moldawer LL, Drott C, Lundholm K. Monocytic production and plasma bioactivities of interleukin-1 and tumour necrosis factor in human cancer. Eur J Clin Invest 1988;18:486-492.
49. Socher SM, Martinez D, Craig JB, Kuhn JG, Oliff A. Tumour necrosis factor nondetectable in patients with cancer cachexia. J Natl Cancer Inst 1988;80:595-598.
50. Selby PJ, Hobbs S, Niner C, Jackson, E, Smith IE, McElwain TJ. Endogenesis tumour necrosis factor in cancer patients. Lancet 1988;1:483.
51. Costelli P, Carbó N, Tessitore L, Bagby GJ, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM, Baccino FM. Tumour necrosis factor-α mediates changes in muscle protein turnover in a cachectic rat tumour model. J Clin Invest 1993;92:2783-2789.
52. Stovroff MC, Fraker DL, Norton JA. Cachectin activity in the serum of cachectic, tumor-bearing rats. Arch Surg 1988;124:94-99.
53. Aderka D, Fischer D, Levo Y, Holtmann H, Hahn T, Wallach D. Cachectin/tumour necrosis factor production by cancer patients. Lancet 1985;2:1190.
54. Strassmann G, Fong M, Freter CE, Windsor S, D'Alessandro F, Nordan RP. Suramin interferes with interleukin-6 receptor binding in vitro and inhibits colon-26-mediated experimental cancer cachexia in vivo. J Clin Invest 1993;92:2152-2159.
55. Soda K, Kawakami M, Kashii A, Miyata M. Characterization of mice bearing subclones of colon 26 adenocarcinoma disqualifies interleukin-6 as the sole inducer of cachexia. Jpn J Cancer Res 1994;85:1124-1130.
56. Soda K, Kawakami M, Kashii A, Miyata M, Manifestations of cancer cachexia induced by colon 26 adenocarcinoma are not fully ascribable to interleukin-6. Int J Cancer 1995;62:332-336.
57. García-Martínez C, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Interleukin-6 does not activate protein breakdown in rat skeletal muscle. Cancer Lett 1994;76:1-4.
58. Matthys P, Heremans H, Opdenakker G, Billiau A. Anti-interferon-γ antibody treatment, growth of Lewis lung tumours in mice and tumour-associated cachexia. Eur J Cancer 1991;27:182-187.
59. Matthys P, Dukmans R, Proost P, Van Damme J, Heremans H, Sobis H, Billiau A. Severe cachexia in mice inoculated with interferon-γ-producing tumor cells. Int J Cancer 1991;49:77-82.
60. Mori M, Yamaguchi K, Honda S, Nagasaki K, Ueda M, Abe O, Abe K. Cancer Res 1991;51:6656-6659.
61. Zugmaier G, Paik S, Wilding G, Knabbe K, Bano M, Lupu R, Deschauer B, Simpson S, Dickson RB, Lippman M. Transforming growth factor β1 induces cachexia and systemic fibrosis without an antitumor effect in nude mice. Cancer Res 1991;51:3590-3594.
62. Moldawer LL, Georgieff M, Lundholm K. Interleukin-1, tumour necrosis factor-α/cachexin and the pathogenesis of cancer cachexia. Clin Physiol 1987;7:263-274.
63. Mori M, Yamaguchi K, Abe K. Purification of a lipoprotein lipase-inhibiting protein produced by a melanoma cell line associated with cancer cachexia. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1989;160:1085-1092.
64. Mrosovsky N, Molony LA, Conn CA, Kluger MJ. Anorexic effects of interleukin-1 in the rat. Am J Physiol 1989;257:R1315-R1321.
65. Hashimoto M. Characterization and mechanism of fever induction by interleukin-1-beta. Pflügers Arch 1991;419:616-621.
66. Costelli P, Llovera M, Carbó N, García-Martínez C, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-Ira) is unable to reverse cachexia in rats bearing an ascites hepatoma. (Yoshida AH-130). Cancer Lett 1995;95:33-38.
67. Vanderschueren B, Dumon JC, Oleffe V, Heymans C, Gérain J, Body JJ. Circulating concentrations of interleukin-6 in cancer patients and their pathogenic role in tumor-induced hypercalcemia. Cancer Immunol Immunother 1994;39:286-290.
68. Lorgeot V, Praloran V, Turlure P, Denizot Y. Concentrations of serum leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) in patients with hematologic malignancies. Leukemia 1997;11:311-312.
69. Ip NY, McClain J, Barrezueta NX, Aldrich TH, Pan L, Li Y, Wiegand SJ, Friedman B, Davis S, Yancopoulos GD. The alpha component of the CNTF receptor is required for signalling and defines potential CNTF targets in the adult and during development. Neuron 1993;10: 89-102.
70. Henderson JT, Mullen BJ, Roder JC. Physiological effects of CNTF-induced wasting. Cytokine 1996;8:784-793.
71. P. Felig. Endocrinology. New York: Grune & Stratton; 1979. Vol. 3, pp. 1927-1940.
72. Stock MJ, Rothwell NJ. Brown adipose tissue and the response to overfeeding. Biochem Soc Trans 1986;14:239-240.
73. Hyltander A, Drott C, Korner V. Elevated energy expenditure in cancer patients with solid tumors. Eur J Cancer 1991;27:9-15.
74. Blumberg D, Hochwald S, Brennan MF, Burt M, Interleukin-6 stimulates gluconeogenesis in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes. Metabolism 1995;44:145-146.
75. Yasmineh WG, Theologides A, Effect of tumor necrosis factor on enzymes of gluconeogenesis in the rat. Proc Soc Exptl Biol Med 1992;199:97-103.
76. Christ B, Nath A. Impairment by interleukin-1β and tumour necrosis factor-α of the glucagon-induced increase in phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene expression and gluconeogenesis in cultures rat hepatocytes. Biochem J 1996;320:161-166.
77. Zentella A, Manogue K, Cerami A. Cachectin/TNF-mediated lactate production in cultured myocytes is linked to activation of a futile substate cycle. Cytokine 1993;5:436-447.
78. Llovera M, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Effects of tumor necrosis factor-α on muscle protein turnover in female Wistar rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993;85:1334-1339.
79. Racker E. Why do tumor cells have a high aerobic glycolysis? J Cell Physiol 1976;89:697-700.
80. Nicholls DG. The thermogenic mechanism of brown adipose tissue. Biosci Rep 1983;3:431-441.
81. Rothwell NJ. Cytokines and thermogenesis. Int J Obesity 1993;17:S98-S101.
82. Bianchi A, Brace J, Cooper AL, Childs C, Kohli M, Morris ID, Morris-Jones P, Rothwell NJ. Increased brown adipose tissue activity in children with malignant disease. Horm Metab Res 1989;21:640-641.
83. Oudart H, Calgari C, Andriamampandry M, LeMaho Y, Malan A. Stimulation of brown adipose tissue activity in tumor-bearing rats. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1995;73:1625-1631.
84. López-Soriano J, Argilés JM, López-Soriano FJ. Metabolic effects of tumour necrosis factor-α on rat brown adipose tissue. Mol Cell Biochem 1995;143:113-118.
85. Fleury C, Neverova M, Collins S, Raimbault S, Champigny O, Levi-Meyrueis C, Bouillaud F, Seldin MF, Surwit RS, Ricquier D, Warden CH. Uncoupling protein-2: a novel gene linked to obesity and hyperinsulinemia. Nature-Genet S, 1997;15:269-272.
86. Gimeno RE, Dembski M, Weng X, Deng N, Shyjan AW, Gimeno C, Iris F, Ellis SJ, Woolf EA, Tartaglia LA. Cloning and characterization of an uncoupling protein homolog. Diabetes 1997;46:900-906.
87. Vidal-Puig A, Solanes G, Grujic D, Flier JS, Lobell BB. UCP3: an uncoupling protein homologue expressed preferentially and abundantly in skeletal muscle and brown adipose tissue. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1997;235:79-82.
88. Solanes G, Vidal-Puig A, Grujic D, Flier JS, Lobell BB. The human uncoupling protein-3 gene. J Biol Chem 1997;272:26433-26436.
89. Boss O, Samec S, Paoloni-Giacobino A, Rossier C, Dulloo A, Seydoux J, Muzzin P, Giacobino JP. Uncoupling protein-3: a new member of the mitochondrial carrier family with tissue-specific expression. FEBS Lett 1997;408:39-42.
90. Matsuda J, Hosoda K, Itoh H, Son C, Doi K, Tanaka T, Fukunaga Y, Inoue G, Nishimura H, Yoshimasa Y, Yamori Y, Nakao K. Cloning of rat uncoupling protein-3 and uncoupling protein-2 sDNAs: their gene expression in rats fed high-fat diet. FEBS Lett 1997;418:200-204.
91. Surwit RS, Wang S, Petro AE, Sanchís D, Raimbault S, Ricquier D, Collins S. Diet-induced changes in uncoupling protein in obesity-prone and obesity-resistant strains of mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:4061-4065.
92. Boss O, Samec S, Dulloo A, Seydoux J, Muzzin P, Giacobino JP. Tissue-dependent upregulation of rat uncoupling protein-2 expression in response to fasting or cold. FEBS Lett 1997;412:111-114.
93. Boss O, Samec S, Kúhne F, Bijlenga P, Assimacopoulos-Jeannet F, Seydoux J, Giacobino JP, Muzzin P. Uncoupling protein-3 expression in rodent skeletal muscle is modulated by food intake but not by changes in environmental temperature. J Biol Chem 1998;273: 5-8.
94. Faggioni R, Shigenaga J, Moser A, Feingold KR, Grunfeld C. Induction of UCP2 gene expression by LPS, a potential mechanism for increased thermogenesis during infection. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1998;244:75-78.
95. Sanchís D, Busquets S, Alvarez B, Ricquier D, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Skeletal muscle UCP2 and UCP3 gene expression in a rat cancer cachexia model. FEBS Lett 1998;436:415-418.
96. Busquets S, Sanchís D, Alvarez B, Ricquier D, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés In the rat, TNF-α administration results in an increase in both UCP2 and UCP3 mRNAs in skeletal muscle: a possible mechanism for cytokine-induced thermogenesis? FEBS Lett 1998;440:348-350.
97. Price SR, Olivecrona T, Pekala PH. Regulation of lipoprotein lipase synthesis by recombinant tumor necrosis factor: the primary regulatory role of the hormone in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Arch Biochem Biophys 1986;251:738-746.
98. Cornelius P, Enerback S, Bjursell G, Olivecrona T, Pekala PH. Regulation of lipoprotein lipase mRNA content in 3T3-L1 cells by tumour necrosis factor. Biochem J 1988;249:765-769.
99. Fried SK, Zechner R. Cachectin/tumor necrosis factor decreases human adipose tissue lipoprotein lipase mRNA levels, synthesis, and activity. J Lipid Res 1989;30:1917-1923.
100. Semb H, Peterson J, Tavernier J, Olivecrona T. Multiple effects of tumor necrosis factor on lipoprotein lipase in vivo. J Biol Chem 1987;262: 8390-8394.
101. 14C]lipid load in virgin, lactating and litter-removed rats. Biochem J 1988;256:1055-1058.
102. Feingold KR, Grunfeld C. Tumor necrosis factor-α stimulates hepatic lipogenesis in the rat in vivo. J Clin Invest 1987;80:1384-1389.
103. Krauss RM, Grunfeld C, Doerrler WT, Feingold KR. Tumor necrosis factor acutely increases plasma levels of very low density lipoproteins of normal size and composition. Endocrinology 1990;127:1016-1021.
104. Kern PA. Recombinant human tumor necrosis factor does not inhibit lipoprotein lipase in primary cultures of isolated human adipocytes. J Lipid Res 1988;29:909-914.
105. Kawakami M, Murase T, Ogawa H, Ishibashi S, Mori N, Takaku F, Shibata S. Human recombinant TNF suppresses lipoprotein lipase activity and stimulates lipolysis in 3T3-L1 cells. J Biochem 1987;101:331-338.
106. Feingold KR, Doerrler W, Dinarello CA, Fiers W, Grunfeld C. Stimulaton of lipolysis in cultured fat cells by tumor necrosis factor, interleukin-1, and interferons is blocked by inhibition of prostaglandins synthesis. Endocrinology 1992;130:10-16.
107. Hauner H, Petruschke T, Russ M, Röhrig K, Eckel J. Effects of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) on glucose transport and lipid metabolism of newly-differentiated human fat cells in cell culture. Diabetologia 1995;38:764-771.
108. Pape ME, Kim KH. Effect of tumor necrosis factor on acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase gene expression and pre-adipocyte differentiation. Mol Endocrinol 1988;2:395-403.
109. Patton JS, Shepard HM, Wilking H, Lewis G, Aggarwal BB, Eessalu TE, Gavin LA, Grunfeld C. Interferons and tumor necrosis factor have similar catabolic effects on 3T3L1 cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986;83:8313-8318.
110. Beutler BA, Cerami A. Recombinant interleukin-1 suppresses lipoprotein lipase activity in 3T3-L1 cells. J Immunol 1985;135: 3969-3971.
111. Marshall MK, Doerrler W, Feingold KR, Grunfeld C. Leukemia inhibitory factor induces changes in lipid metabolism in cultures adipocytes. Endocrinology 1994;135:141-147.
112. Price SR, Mizel SB, Pekala PH. Regulation of lipoprotein lipase synthesis and 3T3-L1 adipocyte metabolism by recombinant interleukin-1. Biochim Biophys Acta 1986;889:374-381.
113. Rossi-Fanelli F, Cangiano C, Muscaritoli M, Conversano L, Torelli GF, Cascino A. Nutrition 1995;11: 595-600.
114. Muscaritoli M, Cangiano C, Cascino A, Ceci F, Giacomelli L, Cardellicangiano P, Mulieri M, Rossi-Fanelli F. Plasma clearance of exogenous lipids in patients with malignant disease. Nutrition 1990;6:147-151.
115. Evans RD, Williamson DH. Tissue-specific effects of rapid tumour growth on lipid metabolism in the rat during lactation and on litter removal. Biochem J 1988;252:65-72.
116. Mulligan HD, Tisdale MJ. Lipogenesis in tumour and host tissues in mice bearing colonic adenocarcinomas. Br J Cancer 1991;63:719-722.
117. Dessí S, Batetta B, Pulisci D, Accogli P, Pani P, Broccia G. Total and HDL cholesterol in human and hematologic neoplasms. Int J Hematol 1991;54:483-486.
118. Dessí S, Batetta B, Anchisi C, Pani P, Costelli P, Tessitore L, Baccino FM. Cholesterol metabolism during the growth of a rat ascites hepatoma (Yoshida AH-130). Br J Cancer 1992;66:787-793.
119. Dessí S, Batetta B, Spano O, Bagby GJ, Tessitore L, Costelli P, Baccino FM, Pani P, Argilés JM. Perturbations of trigylcerides but not of cholesterol metabolism are prevented by anti-tumour necrosis factor-α treatment in rats bearing an ascites hepatoma (Yoshida AH-130). Br J Cancer 1995;72:1138-1143.
120. Eisenberg S. High density lipoprotein metabolism. J Lipid Res 1984;25:1017-1058.
121. Feingold KR, Serio MJ, Adi S, Moser AH, Grunfeld C. Tumor necrosis factor stimulates hepatic lipid synthesis and secretion. Endocrinology 1989;124:2336-2342.
122. Feingold KR, Mounzer S, Serio MK, Moser AH, Dinarello CA, Grunfeld C. Multiple cytokines stimulate hepatic lipid synthesis in vivo. Endocrinology 1989;125:267-274.
123. Grunfeld C, Adi S, Soued M, Moser AH, Fiers W, Feingold KR. The search for mediators of the lipogenic effects of tumor necrosis factor: potential role for interleukin-6. Cancer Res 1990;50:4233-4238.
124. Grunfeld C, Soued M, Adi S, Soued M, Moser AH, Fiers W, Dinarello CA, Feingold KR. Interleukin-4 inhibits stimulation of hepatic lipogenesis by tumor necrosis factor, interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 but not by interferon-alpha. Cancer Res 1991;51:2803-2807.
125. Carbó N, Costelli P, Tessitore L, Bagby GJ, López-Soriano FJ, Baccino FM, Argilés JM. Anti-tumour necrosis factor-α treatment interferes with changes in lipid metabolism in a cachectic tumour model. Clin Sci 1994;87:349-355.
126. Lawson DH, Richmond A, Nixon DW, Rudman D. Metabolic approaches to cancer cachexia. Annu Rev Nutr 1982;2:277-301.
127. Morrison SD. In: Liotta AL, editor. Influence of tumor development on the host. The Netherlands: Kluwer Acad. Publ.; 1989, pp. 176-213.
128. Tisdale MJ. Cancer cachexia. Br J Cancer 1992;63:337-342.
129. Kien CL, Camitta BM. Increased whole-body protein turnover in children with newly diagnosed leukemia orlymphoma. Cancer Res 1983;43:5592-5596.
130. Kien CL, Camitta BM. Close association of accelerated rates of whole body protein turnover (synthesis and breakdown) and energy expenditure in children with newly diagnosed acute lymphocytic leukemia. J Parent Enteral Nutr 1987;11:129-134.
131. Tessitore L, Bonelli G, Baccino FM. Early development of protein metabolic perturbation in the liver and skeletal muscle of tumour-bearing rats. Biochem J 1987;241:153-159.
132. Beck SA, Tisdale MJ. Nitrogen excretion in cancer cachexia and its modification by a high fat diet in mice. Cancer Res 1989;49:3800-3804.
133. Melville S, McNurlan MA, Graham Calder A, Garlick PJ. Increased protein turnover despite normal energy metabolism and responses to feeding in patients with lung cancer. Cancer Res 1990;50:1125-1131.
134. Beck SA, Smith KL, Tisdale MJ. Anticachetic and antitumour effect of eicosapentaenoic acid and its effect on protein turnover. Cancer Res 1991;51:6089-6093.
135. Lundholm K, Ekman D, Edstrom S, Karlberg I, Jagenberg R, Scherstén T. Protein synthesis in liver tissue under the influence of a methyl-cholanthrene-induced sarcoma in mice. Cancer Res 1979;39:4657-4661.
136. Emery PW, Neville AM, Edwards RHT, Rennie MJ. Increased myofibrillar degradation and decreased protein synthesis in tumor-bearing mice. Eur J Clin Invest 1982;12:10.
137. Pain VM, Randall DP, Garlick PJ. Protein synthesis in liver and skeletal muscle of mice bearing an ascites tumor. Cancer Res 1984;44:1054-1057.
138. Rennie MJ, Edwards RHT, Emery PW, Halliday D, Lundholm K, Millward DJ. Depressed protein synthesis is the dominant characteristic of wasting and cachexia. Clin Physiol 1983;3:387-398.
139. Lundholm K, Bennegard K, Eden E, Svaninger G, Emery PW, Rennie MJ. Efflux of 3-methylhistidine from the leg in cancer patients who experience weight loss. Cancer Res 1982;.42:4807-4811.
140. García-Martínez C, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Amino acid uptake in skeletal muscle of rats bearing the Yoshida AH-130 ascites hepatoma. Mol Cell Biochem 1995;148:17-23.
141. Llovera M, García-Martínez C, Agell N, Marzábal M, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Ubiquitin gene expression is increased in skeletal muscle of tumour-bearing rats. FEBS Lett 1994;338:311-318.
142. Llovera M, García-Martínez C, Agell N, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Muscle wasting associated with cancer cachexia is linked to an important activation of the ATP-dependent ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis. Int J Cancer 1995;61:138-141.
143. Argilés JM, López-Soriano FJ. The ubiquitin-dependent proteolytic pathway in skeletal muscle: its role in pathological states. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1996;17:223-226.
144. Fong Y, Moldawer LL, Morano M, Wei H, Barber A, Manogue K, Tracey KJ, Kuo G, Fischman DA, Cerami A, Lowry SF. Cachectin/TNF or IL-1 a induces cachexia with redistribution of body proteins. Am J Physiol 1989;256:R659-R665.
145. Warren RS, Starnes Jr HF, Gabrilove JL, Oettgen HF, Brennan MF. The acute metabolic effects of tumor necrosis factor administration in humans. Arch Surg 1987;122:1396-1400.
146. Flores EA, Bistrian BR, Pomposelli JJ, Dinarello CA, Blackburn GL, Istfan NW. J Clin Invest 1989;83:1614-1622.
147. Goodman MN. Tumor necrosis factor induces skeletal muscle protein breakdown in rats. Am J Physiol 1991;260:E727-E730.
148. Llovera M, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Chronic tumour necrosis factor-α treatment modifies protein turnover in rat tissues. Biochem Mol Biol Int 1993;30:29-36.
149. García-Martínez C, López-Soriano, FJ, Argilés JM. Acute treatment with tumour necrosis factor-α induces changes in protein metabolism in rat skeletal muscle. Mol Cell Biochem 1993;125:11-18.
150. García-Martínez C, Agell N, Llovera M, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Tumour necrosis factor-α increases the ubiquitinization of rat skeletal muscle proteins. FEBS Lett 1993;323:211-214.
151. García-Martínez C, Llovera M, Agell N, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Ubiquitin gene expression in skeletal muscle is incresed by tumour necrosis factor-α. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1994;201:682-686.
152. Hershko A, Ciechanover A, Heller H, Haas AL, Rose IA. Proposed role of ATPin protein breakdown: conjugation of proteins with multiple chains of polypeptide of ATP-dependent proteolysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1980;77:1783-1786.
153. Ciechanover A, Finley D, Varshavsky A. The ubiquitin-dependent pathway and mechanims of energy-dependent intracellular protein degradation. J Cell Biochem 1984;24:27-53.
154. Finley D, Varshavsky A. The ubiquitin system: functions and mechanisms. Trends Biochem Sci 1985;10:343-347.
155. Finley D, Chan V. Ubiquitination. Annu Rev Cell Biol 1991;7:25-69.
156. Rechsteiner JM. Natural substrates of the ubiquitin proteolytic pathway. Cell 1991;66:615-618.
157. Peters JM. Proteasomes: protein degradation machines of the cell. Trends Biochem Sci 1994;19:377-382.
158. Hilenski LL, Terracio L, Haas AL, Borg TK. Immunolocalization of ubiquitin conjugates at Z-bands and intercalates discs of rat cardiomyocytes in vitro and in vivo. J Histochem Cytochem 1992;40:1037-1042.
159. Llovera M, Garcia-Martínez C, Costelli P, Agell N, Carbó N, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Muscle hypercatabolism during cancer cachexia is not reversed by the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU 38486. Cancer Lett 1996;99:7-14.
160. Tartaglia LA, Goeddel DV. Two TNF receptors, Immunol Today 1992;13:151-153.
161. Llovera M, García-Martínez C, Agell N, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. TNF can directly induce the expression of ubiquitin-dependent proteolytic system in rat soleus muscles. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1997;230:238-241.
162. Llovera M, Carbó N, López-Soriano FJ, García-Martínez C, Busquets S, Alvarez B, Agell N, Costelli P, López-Soriano FJ, Celada A, Argilés JM. Different cytokines modulate ubiqutin-gene expression in rat skeletal muscle. Cancer Lett 1998;133:83-87.
163. Nair KS, Schwartz RG, Welle S. Leucine as a regulator of whole body and skeletal muscle protein metabolism in humans. Am J Physiol 1992;263:E928-E934.
164. Adibi SA. Metabolism of branched-chain amino acids in altered nutrition. Metabolism 1976;25:1287-1302.
165. Block RJ. Amino acid handbook. Springfield, IL: 1956, p. 344.
166. Argilés JM, López-Soriano FJ. The oxidation of leucine in tumour-bearing rats. Biochem J 1990;268:241-244.
167. García-Martínez C, Llovera M, López-Soriano FJ, Del Santo B, Argilés JM. Lipopolysacharide (LPS) increases the in vivo oxidation of branched-chain amino acids in the rat: a cytokine-mediated effect. Mol Cell Biochem 1995;148:9-15.
168. Goodlad GAJ, Tee MK, Clark CM. Leucine oxidation and protein degradation in the extensor digitorum longus and soleus of the tumor-bearing host. Biochem Med 1981;26:143-147.
169. Costelli P, Llovera M, García-Martínez C, Carbó N, López.-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM, Enhanced leucine oxidation in rats bearing an ascites hepatoma (Yoshida AH-130) and its reversal by clenbuterol. Cancer Lett 1995;91:73-78.
170. Nawabi MD, Block KP, Chakrabarti MC, Buse MG. Administration of endotoxin, tumor necrosis factor, or interleukin-1 to rats activates skeletal muscle branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase. J Clin Invest 1990; 85:256-263.
171. Brennan MF. Total parenteral nutrition in the cancer patient. N Engl J Med 1981;305:375-382.
172. Nishihira T, Takagi T, Kawarabayashi Y, Izumi U, Ohkuma S, Koike N, Toyoda T, Mori S. Anticancer therapy with valine-depleted amino acid imbalance solution. J Exp Med 1988;156:259-270.
173. Nishihira T, Takagi T, Mori S. Leucine and manifestation of antitumor activiy by valine-depleted amino acid imbalance. Nutrition 1993;9:146-152.
174. Lazo PA. Tumour-host metabolic interaction and cachexia. FEBS Lett 1985;187:189-192.
175. Buse MG, Reid SS. Leucine: a possible regulator of protein turnover in muscle. J Clin Invest 1975;56:1250-1261.
176. Fulks RM, Li JB, Goldberg AL. Effects of insulin, glucose and amino acids on protein turnover in rat diaphragm. J Biol Chem 1975;250:290-298.
177. Tischler ME, Desautels M, Goldberg AL. Does leucine, leucyl-tRNA, or some metabolite of leucine regulate protein synthesis and degradation in skeletal and cardiac muscle? J Biol Chem 1982;257:1613-1621.
178. Milch WE, Clark AS. Specificity of the effects of leucine and its metabolites on protein degradation in skeletal muscle. Biochem J 1984;222:579-586.
179. Blomstrand E, Hassmén P, Ekblom B, Newsholme EA. Administration of branched-chain amino acids during sustained exercise: effects on performance and on plasma concentration of some amino acids. Eur J Appl Physiol 1991;63:83-88.
180. 13C]valine. Am J Physiol 1992;262:E372-E376.
181. 2-adrenergic agonist (clenbuterol). J Clin Invest 1995;95:2367-2372.
182. Medina MA, Sánchez-Jiménez F, Márquez J, Rodriguez-Quesada A, Nuñez de Castro I. Relevance of glutamine metabolism in tumor cell growth. Mol Cell Biochem 1992;113:1-15.
183. Kern KA, Norton JA. Cancer cachexia. J Parent Enteral Nutr 1988;12:286-298.
184. Koj A. In: Gordon AH, Koj A, editors. The acute-phase response to injury and infection. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1985; p. 139.
185. Fearon KC, Falconer JS, Slater C, McMillan DC, Ross JA, Preston T. Albumin synthesis rates are not decreased in hypoalbuminemic cachectic cancer patients with an ongoing acute-phase protein response. Ann Surg 1998;227:249-254.
186. Croce MV, Segal-Eiras A. Identification of acute-phase proteins (APP) in circulating immune complexes (CIC) in esophagal patients' sera. Cancer Invest 1996;14:421-426.
187. Weinstein PS, Skinner M, Sipe JD, Lokich JJ, Zamcheck N, Cohen AS. Acute-phase proteins or tumor markers: the role of SAA, SAP, CRP and CEA as indicators of metastasis in abroad spectrum of neoplastic diseases. Scand J Immunol 1984;19:193-198.
188. Moshage H. Cytokines and the hepatic acute phase response. J Pathol 1997;181:257-266.
189. Baumann H, Gauldie J. The acute phase response. Immunol Today 1994;15:74-80.
190. Koj A. Biological functions of acute-phase proteins. In: Gordon AH, Koj A, editors. The acute-phase response to injury and infection. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1985. p. 145-160.
191. Waterhouse C, Jeanpetre N, Keilson J. Glucogenesis from alanine in patients with progressive malignant disease. Cancer Res 1979;39:1968-1972.
192. Glicksman AS, Rawson RW. Diabetes and altered carbohydrate metabolism in patients with cancer. Cancer 1956;9;1127-1134.
193. Werk EE, Sholiton LJ, Marnell RT. Altered cortisol metabolism in advanced cancer and other terminal diseases. Metabolism 1964;13:1425-1438.
194. Inculet RI, Peacock JL, Gorschboth CM, Norton JA. Gluconeogenesis in the tumor-influenced rat hepatocyte: importance of tumor burden, lactate, insulin and glucagon. J Natl Cancer Inst 1987;79:1039-1046.
195. Tayek JA. A review of cancer cachexia and abnormal glucose metabolism in humans with cancer. J Am Coll Nutr 1992;11: 455-456.
196. Lundholm K, Holm G, Scherstén T. Insulin resistance in patients with cancer. Cancer 1978;38:4665-4670.
197. Moley JF, Morrison FD, Norton JA. Preoperative insulin reverses cachexia and decreases mortality in tumor-bearing rats. J Surg Res 1987;43:21-28.
198. Tessitore L, Costelli P, Baccino FM. Humoral mediation for cachexia in tumor-bearing rats. Br J Cancer 1993;67:15-23.
199. Peacock JL, Gorschboth CM, Norton JA. Impact of insulin on doxorubicin-induced host toxicity and tumor regression. Cancer Res 1987;47:4318-4322.
200. Rayfield EJ, Ault MJ, Keusch GT, Brothers MJ, Nechemias C, Smith H. Infection and diabetes: the case for glucose control. Am J Med 1982; 72:439-450.
201. Lang CH, Dobrescu C. Sepsis-induced changes in in vivo insulin action in diabetic rats. Am J Physiol 1989;257:E301-E308.
202. Lang CH, Dobrescu C, Bagby GJ. Tumor necrosis factor impairs insulin action on peripheral glucose disposal and hepatic glucose output. Endocrinology 1992;130:43-52.
203. Van der Poll T, Romijnm A, Endert E, Borm JJJ, Buller HR, Sauerwein HP. Tumor necrosis factor mimics the metabolic response to acute infection in healthy humans. Am J Physiol 1991;261: E457-E465.
204. Hotamisligil GS, Arner P, Caro JF, Atkinson RL, Spiegelman BM. Increased adipose tissue expression of tumor necrosis factor-α in human obesity and insulin resistance. J Clin Invest 1995;95:2409-2415.
205. Hotamisligil GS, Shargill NS, Spiegelman BM. Adipose expression of tumor necrosis factor-α: direct role in obesity-linked insulin resistance. Science 1993;259: 87-91.
206. Stephens JM, Pekala PH. Transcriptional repression of the GLUT4 and C/EBP genes in 3T3-L1 adipocytes by tumor necrosis factor-α . J Biol Chem 1991;266:21839-21845.
207. Pekala P, Kawakami W, Angus CW, Lane A, Cerami A. Selective inhibition of synthesis for de novo fatty acid biosynthesis by an endotoxin-induced mediator from exudate cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1983; 80:2743-2747.
208. Spiegelman BM, Hotamisligil GS. Through thick and thin: wasting, obesity, and TNFa. Cell 1993;73:625-627.
209. Saghizadeh M, Ong JM, Garvey WT, Henry RR, Kern PA. The expression of TNF-α by human muscle. Relationship to insulin resistance. J Clin Invest 1996;97:1111-1116.
210. Hofmann C, Lorenz K, Braithwaite SS, Colca JR, Palazuk BJ, Hotamisligil GS, Spiegelman BM. Altered gene expression for tumor necrosis factor-α and its receptors during drug dietary modulation of insulin resistance. Endocrinology 1994;134:264-270.
211. Hotamisligil GS, Peraldi P, Budavari A, Ellis R, White MF Spiegelman BM IRS-mediated inhibition of insulin receptor tyrosine kinase activity in TNF-α and obesity-induced insulin resistance. Science 1996;271:665-668.
212. Balazs C, Kiss E. Immunological aspects of the effect of pentoxifylline (Trental). Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung 1994;41:121-126.
213. Goldberg RM, Loprinzi CL, Mailliard JA, O'Fallon JR, Krook JE, Ghosh C, Hestorff RD, Chong SF, Reuter NF, Shanahan TG. Pentoxifylline for treatment of cancer anorexia and cachexia: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Oncol 1995;13:2856-2859.
214. Semmler J, Wachtel, H, Endres S. The specific type IV phosphodiesterase inhibitor rolipram suppresses tumor necrosis factor-α production by human mononuclear cells. Int J Immunopharmacol 1993;15:409-413.
215. Badger AM, Olivera DL, Esser KM. Beneficial effects of the phosphodiesterase inhibitors BRL 61063, pentoxifylline, and rollipram in a murine model of endotoxic shock. Circ Shock 1994;44:188-195.
216. Sampaio EP, Sarno EN, Galilly R, Cohn ZA, Kaplan G. Thalidomide selectively inhibits tumor necrosis factor-α production in stimulated human monocytes. J Exp Med 1991;173:699-703.
217. Sampaio EP, Kaplan G, Miranda A, Nery JAC, Miguel CP, Viana SM, Sarno EM. J Infect Dis 1993;168:408-414.
218. Moreira AL, Sampaio EP, Zmuidzinas A, Frindt P, Smith KA, Kaplan G. Thalidomide exerts its inhibitory action on tumor necrosis factor-α by enhancing mRNA degradation. J Exp Med 1993;177:1675-1680.
219. Tramontana JM, Utaipat U, Molloy A, Akarasewi P, Borroughs M, Makonkawkeyoon S, Johnson B, Klausner JD, Rom W, Kaplan G. Thalidomide treatment reduces tumor necrosis factor-α production and enhances weight gain in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Molec Med 1995;1:384-397.
220. Reinhart K, Wiegand-Lohnert C, Grimminger F, Kaul M, Whington S, Treacher D, Eckart J, Willatts S, Bouza C, Krausch D, Stockenhuber F, Eiselstein J, Daum L, Kempeni J. Assessment of the safety and efficacy of the monoclonal anti-tumor necrosis factor antibody fragment, MAK 195F, in patients with sepsis and septic shock: a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging study. Crit Care Med 1996;24:733-742.
221. Yasumoto K, Mukaida N, Harada A, Kuno K, Akiyama M, Nakashima E, Fujioka N, Mai M, Kasahara T, Fujimoto-Ouchi K. Molecular analysis of the cytokine network involved in cachexia in colon 26 adenocarcinoma-bearing mice. Cancer Res 1995;55:921-927.
222. Emilie D, Wijdenes J, Gisselbrecht C, Jarrousse B, Billaud E, Blay JY, Gabarre J, Gaillard JP, Brochier J, Raphael M. Administration of an interleukin-6 monoclonal antibody to patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and lymphoma: effect on lymphoma growth and on B clinical symptoms. Blood 1994;84:2472-2479.
223. Mori K, Fujimoto-Ouchi K, Ishikawa T, Sekiguchi F, Ishitsuka H, Tanaka Y. Murine interleukin-12 prevents the development of cancer cachexia in a murine model. Int J Cancer 1996;67:849-855.
224. Tanaka Y, Eda H, Tanaka T, Udagawa T, Ishikawa T, Horii I, Ishitsuka H. Experimental cancer cachexia induced by transplantable colon 26 adenocarcinoma in mice. Cancer Res 1990;50:2290-2295.
225. Ouchi KF, Tamura S, Mori K, Tanaka Y, Ishitsuka H. Establishment and characterization of cachexia-inducing and non-inducing clones of murine colon. Int J Cancer 1995;61:522-528.
226. Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Marzo AL, Himbeck RP, Jarnicki AG, Robinson BW, Fitzpatrick DR. Interleukin-6 involvement in mesothelioma pathobiology: inhibitin by interferon-α immunotherapy. Cancer Immunol Immunother 1995;40:241-250.
227. Sakurai Y, Zhang XJ, Wolfe RR. Insulin-like growth factor-I and insulin reduce leucine flux and oxidation in conscious tumor necrosis factor-infused dogs. Surgery 1995;117:305-313.
228. Ng EH, Rock CS, Lazarus DD, Stiaino-Coico L, Moldawer LL, Lowry SF. Insulin-like growth factor I preserves host lean tissue mass in cancer cachexia. Am J Physiol 1992;262:R426-R431.
229. Quinn LS, Haugk KL, Grabstein KH. Interleukin-15: a novel anabolic cytokine for skeletal muscle. Endocrinology 1995;136:3669-3672.
230. Carbó N, López-Soriano J, Costelli P, Busquets S, Alvarez B, Baccino FM, Quinn LS, López-Soriano FJ, Argilés JM. Interleukin-15 mediates reciprocal regulation of adipose and muscle mass. A potential role in body weight control. To appear.
231. Hill AG, Jacobson L, Gonzalez J, Rounds J, Majzoub JA, Wilmore DW. Chronic central nervous system exposure to interleukin-1 causes catabolism in the rat. Am J Physiol 1996;271:R1142-R1148.
232. Ling PR, Schwartz JH, Bistrian BR. Mechanisms of host wasting induced by administration of cytokines in rats. Am J Physiol 1997;272:E333-E339.
233. Roe SY, Cooper AL, Morris ID, Hopkins SJ, Rothwell NJ. Involvement of cytokines in cachexia induced by T-cell leukaemia in the rat. Eur Cytokine Netw 1997;8:45-49.
234. Sheen-Chen SM, Chen WJ, Eng HL, Chou FF. Serum concentration of tumor necrosis factor in patients with breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1997; 43:211-215.