Neurodegenerative memory disorders: A potential role of environmental toxins

Neurologic Clinics

Volumn 23, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 485-521

  Caban Holt, Allison ^a   Mattingly, Michelle ^a   Cooper, Gregory ^a,b   Schmitt, Frederick A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b LEXINGTON CLINIC   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALUMINUM; CARBON MONOXIDE; COPPER SULFATE; CUPRIC CHLORIDE; DEFEROXAMINE; FUNGICIDE; HEAVY METAL; HERBACEOUS AGENT; HERBICIDE; IRON; LEAD; MANGANESE; MERCURY; PESTICIDE; PETHIDINE; SOLVENT; ZINC;

AGRICULTURAL WORKER; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS; CARBON MONOXIDE INTOXICATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; DEMENTIA; DEMOGRAPHY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; FRONTOTEMPORAL DEMENTIA; GUAM; HUMAN; LEWY BODY; MAGNETIC FIELD; MEMORY DISORDER; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NEUROTOXICITY; NIEMANN PICK DISEASE; NONHUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; PARKINSON DISEASE; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RURAL AREA; SCREENING; SKIN DISEASE; SMOKING;

EID: 14744296125     PISSN: 07338619     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ncl.2004.12.005     Document Type: Review

References (199)

1. R. Mayeaux Epidemiology of neurodegeneration Annu Rev Neurosci 26 2003 81 104
2. P. D'Epiro Keeping current in Alzheimer's disease Patient Care 13 1999 127 139
3. S.S. Richards, and H.C. Hendrie Diagnosis, management and treatment of Alzheimer's disease: a guide for the internist Arch Intern Med 159 1999 789 801
4. J.C. Morris Differential diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease Clin Geriatr Med 10 1994 257 276
5. A.F. Jorm, and D. Jolley The incidence of dementia: a meta-analysis Neurology 51 1998 728 733
6. S. Gao, H.C. Hendrie, and K.S. Hall The relationship between age, sex, and the incidence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease: a meta-analysis Arch Gen Psychiatry 55 1998 809 815
7. W.A. Kukull, and M. Ganguli Epidemiology of dementia: concepts and overview Neurol Clin 18 4 2000 923 950
8. D.H. Garabrant Epidemiologic principles in the evaluation of suspected neurotoxic disorders Neurol Clin 18 3 2000 631 648
9. D.S. Knopman, S.T. DeKosky, and J.L. Cummings Practice parameter: diagnosis of dementia (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology Neurology 56 2001 1143 1153
10. R.C. Petersen, J.C. Stevens, and M. Ganguli Practice parameter: early detection of dementia (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology Neurology 56 2001 1133 1142
11. C.M. Callahan, H.C. Hendrie, and W.M. Tierney Documentation and evaluation of cognitive impairment in elderly primary care patients Ann Intern Med 122 1995 422 429
12. L. Boise, M.B. Neal, and J. Kaye Dementia assessment in primary care: results from a study in three managed care systems J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 59 2004 621 626
13. W.A. Kukull The association between smoking and Alzheimer's disease: effects of study design bias Biol Psychiatry 49 2001 194 199
14. F.A. Schmitt, and J.D. Ranseen Neuropsychological toxicology and aging R.L. Cooper J.M. Goldman T.J. Harbin Aging and environmental toxicology: biological and behavioral perspectives 1991 Johns Hopkins Press Baltimore (MD) 246 271
15. J.C. Morris Evaluation of the demented patient J.C. Morris Handbook of dementing illnesses 1994 Marcel Dekker New York 71 88
16. G.T. Grossberg, and A.K. Desai Management of Alzheimer's disease J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 58 4 2003 331 353
17. J.L. Cummings The neuropsychiatry of Alzheimer's disease and related disorders 2003 Martin Dunitz Independence (KY)
18. X.H. Zhou, and R.E. Higgs Assessing the relative accuracies of two screening tests in the presence of verification bias Stat Med 19 11-12 2000 1697 1705
19. W.R. Markesbery The role of oxidative stress in Alzheimer disease Arch Neurol 56 1999 1449 1552
20. W.R. Markesbery, and W.D. Ehmann Brain trace elements in Alzheimer disease R.D. Terry R. Katzman L. Bick Alzheimer disease 1994 Raven Press Ltd. New York 353 367
21. W.R. Markesbery, and W.D. Ehmann Oxidative stress in Alzheimer disease R.D. Terry R. Katzman K.L. Bick Alzheimer disease 2nd edition 1999 Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins Philadelphia 401 414
22. D.J. Selkoe Toward a comprehensive theory for Alzheimer's disease; hypothesis: Alzheimer's disease is caused by the cerebral accumulation and cytotoxicity of amyloid beta-protein Ann N Y Acad Sci 924 2000 17 25
23. P. Arlien-Soborg, L. Hansen, and O. Ladefoged Report on a conference on organic solvents and the nervous system Neurotoxicol Teratol 14 1 1992 81 82
24. A.B. Graves, D. Rosner, and D. Echeverria Occupational exposure to solvents and aluminum and estimated risk of Alzheimer's disease Occup Environ Med 55 1998 627 633
25. K. Palmer, H. Inskip, and C. Martyn Dementia and occupational exposure to organic solvents Occup Environ Med 55 1998 712 715
26. S.L. Shalat, B. Seltzer, and E.L. Baker Occupational risk factors and Alzheimer's disease: a case-control study J Occup Med 30 12 1988 934 936
27. American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 3rd edition 1980 American Psychiatric Association Washington (DC)
28. G. McKhann, D. Drachman, and M. Folstein Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: report of the NINCDS ADRDA work group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's disease Neurology 34 7 1984 939 944
29. D.M. Freed, and E. Kandel Long-term occupational exposure and diagnosis of dementia Neurotoxicology 9 3 1988 391 400
30. W.A. Kukull, E.B. Larson, and J.D. Bowen Solvent exposure as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: a case-control study Am J Epidemiol 141 11 1995 1059 1079
31. I. Klatzo, H. Wisniewski, and E. Streicher Experimental production of neurofibrillary degeneration: light microscopic observations J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 24 1965 187 199
32. D.R. Crapper, S.S. Krishnan, and A.J. Dalton Brain aluminum distribution in Alzheimer's disease and experimental neurofibrillary degeneration Trans Am Neurol Assoc 98 1973 17 20
33. M.F. Beal, M.F. Mazurek, and D.W. Ellison Neurochemical characteristics of aluminum-induced neurofibrillary degeneration in rabbits Neuroscience 29 2 1989 339 346
34. D.R. Crapper, S.S. Krishnan, and S. Quittkat Aluminum, neurofibrillary degeneration and Alzheimer's disease Brain 99 1 1976 67 80
35. R.F. Itzhaki Possible factors in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease Mol Neurobiol 9 1994 1 13
36. R.A. Yokel The toxicology of aluminum in the brain: a review Neurotoxicology 21 5 2000 813 828
37. H. Braak, and E. Braak Neuropathological staging of Alzheimer-related changes Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 82 1991 239 259
38. A. Campbell The potential role of aluminum in Alzheimer's disease Nephrol Dial Transplant 17 Suppl 2 2002 S17 S20
39. P. Zatta Controversial aspects of aluminum (III) accumulation and subcompartmentation in Alzheimer's disease J Trace Elem Med Biol 10 1993 120 128
40. D.G. Munoz Is exposure to aluminum, a risk factor for the development of Alzheimer's disease?-no Arch Neurol 55 5 1998 737 739
41. J.M. Candy, A.E. Oakley, and J. Klinowski Aluminosilicates and senile plaque formation in Alzheimer's disease Lancet 1 8477 1986 354 357
42. N. Ward, and J. Mason Neutron activation analysis techniques for identifying elemental status in Alzheimer's disease Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 113 1987 515 526
43. P. Altmann, U. Shanesha, and C. Hamon Disturbance of cerebral function by aluminum in haemodialysis patients without overt aluminum toxicity Lancet 2 8653 1989 7 12
44. J.M. Candy, F.K. McArthur, and A.E. Oakley Aluminum accumulation in relation to senile plaque and neurofibrillary tangle formation in the brains of patients with renal failure J Neurol Sci 107 2 1992 210 218
45. C.R. Harrington, C.M. Wishlik, and F.K. McArthur Alzheimer's-disease-like changes in tau protein processing: association with aluminum accumulation in brains of renal dialysis patients Lancet 343 8904 1994 993 997
46. M.G. Soni, S.M. White, and W.G. Flamm Safety evaluation of dietary aluminum Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 33 2001 66 79
47. World Health Organization/International Programme on Chemical Safety. Aluminum, environmental health criteria, 194 1997 WHO Geneva p. 1-152
48. Schupf N. Aluminum in drinking water and Alzheimer's disease: methodological problem. In: Gitelman HJ, editor. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Aluminum and Health. Tampa (FL): Aluminum Association (WA); 1992. p. 53-59.
49. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Toxicological profile for aluminum and compounds. ATSDR TP-91/01, 1992;77:83.
50. S. Polizzi, E. Pria, and M. Ferrara Neurotoxic effects of aluminum among foundry workers and Alzheimer's disease Neurotoxicology 23 2002 761 774
51. L.C. Neri, and D. Hewitt Aluminum, Alzheimer's disease, and drinking water Lancet 338 8763 1991 1592 1593
52. V. Rondeau, D. Commenges, and H. Jacqmin-Gadda Relation between aluminum concentrations in drinking water and Alzheimer's disease: an 8-year follow-up study Am J Epidemiol 152 1 2000 288 290
53. W.F. Forbes, J.F. Gentleman, and C.J. Maxwell Concerning the role of aluminum in causing dementia Exp Gerontol 30 1 1995 23 32
54. D.R. McLachlan, C. Bergeron, and J.E. Smith Risk for neuropathologically confirmed Alzheimer's disease and residual aluminum in municipal drinking water employing weighted residential histories Neurology 46 2 1996 401 405
55. E. Gauthier, I. Fortier, and F. Courchesne Aluminum forms in drinking water and risk of Alzheimer's disease Environ Res 84 3 2000 234 246
56. C.N. Martyn, D.J. Barker, and C. Osmond Geographical relation between Alzheimer's disease and aluminum in drinking water Lancet 14 1 1989 59 62
57. A. Wettstein, J. Aeppli, and K. Gautschi Failure to find a relationship between mnestic skills of octogenarians and aluminum in drinking water Int Arch Occup Environ Health 63 2 1991 97 103
58. The Canadian study of health and aging: risk factors for Alzheimer's disease in Canada Neurology 44 1994 2073 2080
59. T.P. Flaten, E. Glattre, and A. Viste Mortality from dementia among gastroduodenal ulcer patients Epidemiol Community Health 45 3 1991 203 206
60. B. Sjogren Occupational exposure to dust: inflammation and ischaemic heart disease Occup Environ Med 54 7 1997 466 469
61. D. McLachlan Aluminum and the risk for Alzheimer's disease Environmetrics 6 1995 233 275
62. A.I. McLaughlin, G. Kazantzis, and E. King Pulmonary fibrosis and encephalopathy associated with the inhalation of aluminum dust Br J Ind Med 19 1962 253 263
63. W.T. Longstreth Jr., L. Rosenstock, and N.J. Heyer Potroom palsy: neurologic disorder in three aluminum smelter workers Arch Intern Med 145 11 1985 1972 1975
64. D.M. White, W.T. Longstreth Jr., and L. Rosenstock Neurologic syndrome in 25 workers from an aluminum smelting plant Arch Intern Med 153 7 1993 1443 1448
65. H. Langauer-Lewowicka, and Z. Braszczynska Evaluation of the combined effect of various harmful physical and chemical factors on the nervous system Acta Neurochir (Wien) 17 1 1983 91 96
66. S.L. Rifat, M.R. Eastwood, and D.R. McLachlan Effect of exposure of miners to aluminum powder Lancet 336 8724 1990 1162 1165
67. K.H. Kilburn Neurobehavioral impairment and symptoms associated with aluminum remelting Arch Environ Health 53 5 1998 329 335
68. M. Sim, R. Dick, and J. Russo Are aluminum potroom workers at increased risk of neurological disorders? Occup Environ Med 54 4 1997 229 235
69. M. Zaudig A new systematic method of measurement and diagnosis of "mild cognitive impairment" and dementia according to ICD-10 and DSM-III-R criteria Int Psychogeriatr 4 Suppl 2 1992 S203 S219
70. J. Krasuki, G. Alexander, and B. Horvitz Volumes of medial temporal lobe structures inpatients with Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment and in healthy controls Biol Psychiatry 43 1 1998 194 199
71. E. Salib, and V. Hiller A case-control study of Alzheimer's disease and aluminum occupation Br J Psychiatry 168 2 1996 244 249
72. D.R. Crapper, S.S. Krishnan, and U. De Boni Aluminum: a possible neurotoxic agent in Alzheimer's disease Trans Am Neurol Assoc 100 1975 154 156
73. Crapper, D.R. McLachlan, A.J. Dalton, and T.P. Kruck Intramuscular desferrioxamine in patients with Alzheimer's disease Lancet 337 1991 1304 1308
74. N. Xu, V. Majidi, and W.R. Markesbery Brain aluminum in Alzheimer's disease using an improved GFAAS method Neurotoxicology 14 4 1992 735 743
75. J.R. McDermott, A.I. Smith, and K. Iqbal Brain aluminum in aging and Alzheimer disease Neurology 29 6 1979 809 814
76. E. Bjertness, J.M. Candy, and A. Torvik Content of brain aluminum is not elevated in Alzheimer disease Alzheimer's Dis Assoc Disord 10 3 1996 171 174
77. M.A. Deibel, W.D. Ehmann, and W.R. Marksbery Copper, iron, and zinc imbalances in severely degenerated brain regions in Alzheimer's disease: possible relation to oxidative stress J Neurol Sci 143 1996 137 142
78. D.A. Butterfield, K. Hensley, and M. Harris Beta-Amyloid peptide free radical fragments initiate synaptosomal lipoperoxidation in a sequence-specific fashion: implications in Alzheimer's disease Biochem Biophys Res Commun 200 1994 710 715
79. D.A. Butterfield Amyloid beta-peptide (1-42)-induced oxidative stress and neurotoxicity: implications for neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease brain; a review Free Radic Res 36 2002 1307 1313
80. J.A. Mortimer, and J.T. Hutton Epidemiology and etiology of Alzheimer's disease J.T. Hutton A.D. Kenny Senile dementia of the Alzheimer type 1985 A.R. Liss New York 177 196
81. M.A. Lovell, J.D. Robertson, and W.J. Teesdale Copper, iron, and zinc in Alzheimer's disease senile plaques J Neurol Sci 158 1998 47 52
82. K. Senior Copper may have a positive effect on Alzheimer's disease Lancet Neurol 3 1 2004 1 2
83. A.L. Phinney, P. Horne, and J. Yang Mouse models of Alzheimer's disease: the long and filamentous road Neurol Res 25 6 2003 590 600
84. D.L. Sparks, and B.G. Schreurs Trace amounts of copper in water induce β-amyloid plaques and learning deficits in a rabbit model of Alzheimer's disease Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100 2003 11065 11069
85. J.A. Molina, F.J. Jimenez-Jimenez, and M.V. Aguilar Cerebrospinal fluid levels of transition metals in patients with Alzheimer's disease J Neural Transm 105 1998 479 488
86. M.P. Cuajungco, and G.J. Lees Zinc metabolism in the brain: relevance to human neurodegenerative disorders Neurobiol Dis 4 1997 137 169
87. D. Price, P. Davis, and J. Morris The distribution of tangles, plaques, and related immunohistochemical markers in healthy aging and Alzheimer's disease Neurobiol Aging 12 1991 295 312
88. L.L. Rulon, J.D. Robertson, and M.A. Lovell Serum zinc levels and Alzheimer's disease Biol Trace Elem Res 75 2000 79 85
89. C. Gonzalez, T. Martin, and J. Cacho Serum zinc, copper, insulin, and lipids in Alzheimer's disease epsilon 4 apolipoprotein E allele carriers Eur J Clin Invest 29 1999 637 642
90. J.T.A. Ely Mercury induced Alzheimer's disease: accelerating incidence? Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 67 2001 800 806
91. C. Thompson, W. Markesbery, and W. Ehmann Regional brain trace element studies in Alzheimer's disease Neurotoxicology 9 1988 1 7
92. J.C. Pendergrass, B.E. Haley, and M.J. Vimy Mercury vapor inhalation inhibits binding of GTP to tubulin in rat brain: similarity to a molecular lesion in Alzheimer diseased brain Neurotoxicology 18 2 1997 315 324
93. J. Webb Enzyme and metabolic inhibitors 1963 Academic Press New York
94. S. Saxe, M. Wekstein, and R. Kryscio Alzheimer's disease, dental amalgam and mercury J Am Dent Assoc 130 1999 191 199
95. D. Gautrin, and S. Gauthier Alzheimer's disease: environmental factors and etiologic hypotheses Can J Neurol Sci 16 1989 375 387
96. H. Shibayama, Y. Kashara, and H. Kobsayashi Prevalence of dementia in Japanese elderly population Acta Psychiatr Scand 74 1986 144 151
97. H. Jean, J.F. Emard, and J.P. Thouez Alzheimer's disease: preliminary study of spatial distribution at birth place Soc Sci Med 42 1996 871 878
98. E. Gauthier, I. Fortier, and F. Courchesne Environmental pesticide exposure as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: a case-control study Environ Res 86 2001 37 45
99. P.G. Blain Aspects of pesticide toxicology. Adverse Drug React Acute Poison Rev 9 1990 37 68
100. T.R. Fukuto Mechanism of action of organophosphorus and carbmate insecticides Environ Health Perspect 87 1990 245 254
101. P.G. Bardin, S.F. Van Eden, and A. Moolman Organophosphate and carbmate poisoning Arch Intern Med 154 1994 1433 1441
102. O. Elroy-Stein, Y. Bernstein, and Y. Groner Over production of human Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase in transfected cells: extenuation of paraquat-mediated cyctoxicity and enhancement of lipid peroxidation EMBO J 5 1986 615 622
103. M. Corasaniti, R. Defilippo, and P. Rodino Evidence that paraquat is able to cross the blood brain-barrier to a different extent in rats of various age Funct Neurol 6 1991 385 391
104. R.D. Kimbrough, T.B. Gaines, and R.E. Linder The ultrastructure of livers of rats fed DDT and Dieldrin Arch Environ Health 22 1971 460 467
105. L. Fleming, J.B. Mann, and J. Bean Parkinson's disease and brain levels of organochlorine pesticides Ann Neurol 36 1994 100 103
106. I. Baldi, P. Lebailly, and B. Mohammed-Brahim Neurodegenerative diseases and exposure to pesticides in the elderly Am J Epidemiol 157 2003 409 414
107. E. Sobel, Z. Davanipour, and R. Sulkava Occupation with exposure to electromagnetic fields: a possible risk factor for Alzheimer's disease Am J Epidemiol 142 5 1995 515 524
108. D.A. Savitz, D.P. Loomis, and C.J. Tse Electrical occupations and neurodegenerative disease: analysis of US mortality data Arch Environ Health 53 1998 71 74
109. D.A. Savitz, H. Checkoway, and D.P. Loomis Magnetic field exposure and neurodegenerative disease mortality among electric utility workers Epidemiology 9 4 1998 398 404
110. M. Feychting, F. Jonsson, and N.L. Pedersen Occupational magnetic field exposure and neurodegenerative disease Epidemiology 14 4 2003 413 419
111. N. Hakansson, P. Gustavsson, and C. Johansen Neurodegenerative diseases in welders and other workers exposed to high levels of magnetic fields Epidemiology 14 4 2003 420 426
112. P.N. Lee Smoking and Alzheimer's disease: a review of the epidemiological evidence Neuroepidemiology 13 4 1994 131 144
113. A. Ott, A.J. Slooter, and A. Hofman Smoking and risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based cohort study: the Rotterdam study Lancet 351 9119 1998 1840 1843
114. C. Merchant, M.X. Tang, and S. Albert The influence of smoking on the risk of Alzheimer's disease Neurology 52 7 1999 1408 1412
115. L. Launer, K. Andersen, M. Dewey for the European Studies of Dementia Incidence Research Group and Work Groups Rates and risk factors for dementia and Alzheimer's disease: results from EURODEM pooled analyses Neurology 52 1 1999 78 84
116. S.L. Tyas, L.R. White, and H. Petrovitch Mid-life smoking and late-life dementia: the Honolulu-Asia aging study Neurobiol Aging 24 2003 589 596
117. D.L. Bachman, R.C. Green, and K.S. Benke Comparisons of Alzheimer's disease risk factors in white and African American families Neurology 60 2003 1372 1374
118. C.J. Fuller, M.A. May, and K.J. Martin The effect of vitamin E and vitamin C supplementation on LDL oxidizability and neutrophil respiratory burst in young smokers J Am Coll Nutr 19 3 2000 361 369
119. M.G. Traber, B.M. Winklhofer-Roob, and J.M. Roob Vitamin E kinetics in smokers and nonsmokers Free Radic Biol Med 31 11 2001 1368 1374
120. K.S. Stamatelopoulos, J.P. Lekakis, and C.M. Papamichael Oral administration of ascorbic acid attenuates endothelial dysfunction after short-term cigarette smoking Int J Vitam Nutr Res 73 6 2003 417 422
121. K. Panda, R. Chattopadhyay, and D.J. Chattopadhyay Vitamin C prevents cigarette smoke-induced oxidative damage in vivo Free Radic Biol Med 29 2 2000 115 124
122. H.S. Kim, and B.M. Lee Protective effects of antioxidant supplementation on plasma lipid peroxidation in smokers J Toxicol Environ Health A 63 8 2001 583 598
123. D. DiMonte, M. Lavasani, and A. Manning-Bog Environmental factors in Parkinson's disease Neurotoxicology 23 2002 487 502
124. I. McKeith, and D. Burn Spectrum of Parkinson's disease, Parkinson's dementia, and Lewy body dementia Neurol Clin 18 4 2000 865 883
125. K.A. Jellinger α-Synuclein pathology in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease brain: incidence and topographic distribution; a pilot study Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 106 2003 191 201
126. R. Mayeaux, J. Chen, and E. Mirabello An estimate of the incidence of dementia in idiopathic Parkinson's disease Neurology 40 10 1990 1513 1517
127. S. Campbell, S. Stephens, and C. Ballard Dementia with Lewy bodies: clinical features and treatment Drugs Aging 18 6 2001 397 407
128. M. Wagner, and D. Bachman Neuropsychological features of diffuse Lewy Body disease Arch Clin Neuropsychol 11 3 1996 175 184
129. R. Mayeaux, J. Denaro, and N. Hemenegildo A population-based investigation of Parkinson's disease with and without dementia: relationship to age and gender Arch Neurol 49 5 1992 492 497
130. S. Glatt, J. Hubble, and K. Lyons Risk factors for dementia in Parkinson's disease: effect of education Neuroepidemiology 15 1 1996 20 25
131. J. Hubble, J. Kurth, and S. Glatt Gene-toxin interaction as a putative risk factor for Parkinson's disease with dementia Neuroepidemiology 17 2 1998 96 104
132. G. Levy, N. Schupf, and M. Tang Combined effects of age and severity on the risk of dementia in Parkinson's disease Ann Neurol 51 6 2002 722 729
133. K. Marder, P. Flood, and L. Cote A pilot study of risk factors for dementia in Parkinson's disease Mov Disord 5 2 1990 156 161
134. P. Kotzbauer, J. Trojanowski, and V. Lee Lewy body pathology in Alzheimer's disease J Mol Neurosci 17 2001 225 232
135. J. Gorell, C. Johnson, and B. Rybicki The risk of Parkinson's disease with exposure to pesticides, farming, well water, and rural living Neurology 50 5 1998 1346 1350
136. R. Lewin Parkinson's disease: an environmental cause? Science 230 1985 257 258
137. X. Li, and A. Sun Paraquat induced activation of transcription factor AP-1 and apoptosis in PC12 cells J Neural Transm 106 1999 1 21
138. A. Barbeau, L. Dalliare, and N. Buu Comparative behavioral, biochemical, and pigmentary effects of MPTP, MPP +, and paraquat in Rara Pipiens Life Sci 37 1985 1529 1538
139. H. Liou, M. Tasi, and C. Chen Environmental risk factors and Parkinson's disease: a case control study in Taiwan Neurology 48 6 1997 1583 1588
140. A. Kuopio, R. Marttila, and H. Helenius Environmental risk factors in Parkinson's disease Mov Disord 14 6 1999 928 939
141. M. Collins, and E. Neafsey Potential neurotoxic "agents provocateurs" in Parkinson's disease Neurotoxicol Teratol 24 5 2002 571 577
142. M. Baldereschi, A. DiCarlo, and P. Vanni Lifestyle-related risk factors for Parkinson's disease: a population-based study Acta Neurol Scand 108 2003 239 244
143. M. Alam, and W. Schmidt Rotenone destroys dopaminergic neurons and induces parkinsonian symptoms in rats Behav Brain Res 136 1 2002 317 324
144. B. Liu, H.M.. Gao, and J.S. Hong Parkinson's disease and exposure to infectious agents and pesticides and the occurrence of brain injuries role of neuroinflammation Environ Health Perspect 11 8 2003 1065 1073
145. F. Corrigan, C. Weinburg, and R. Shore Organochlorine insecticides in substantia nigra in Parkinson's disease J Toxicol Environ Health 59 4 2000 229 234
146. C. Taylor, M. Saint-Hilaire, and L. Cupples Environmental, medical, and family history risk factors for Parkinson's disease: a New England-based case control study Am J Med Genet 88 1999 742 749
147. S.R. Kirkhorn, and V.F. Garry Agricultural lung diseases Environmental Health Perspect 108 2000 705 712
148. H. Petrovitch, G.W. Ross, and R.D. Abbott Plantation work and risk of Parkinson disease in a population-based longitudinal study Arch Neurol 59 2002 1787 1792
149. G. DePalma, P. Mozzoni, and A. Mutti Case-control study interactions between genetic and environmental factors in Parkinson's disease Lancet 352 1998 1986 1987
150. J.W. Langston, P.A. Ballard, and J.W. Tetrud Chronic parkinsonism in humans due to a product of meperidine-analog synthesis Science 219 1983 979 980
151. J.I. Salach, T.P. Singer, and N. Castagnoli Oxidation of the neurotoxic amine MPTP by monoamine oxidases A and B and suicide inactivation of the enzymes MPTP Biochem Biophys Res Commun 125 1984 831 835
152. W.J. Nicklas, I. Byas, and R.E. Heikkila Inhibition of NADH-linked oxidation in brain mitochondria by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6 tetrahydropyridine Life Sci 36 1985 2503 2508
153. V.N. Uversky, J. Li, and A.L. Finke Metal-triggered structural transformations, aggregation, and fibrillation of human α-synuclein J Biol Chem 276 47 2001 44284 44296
154. J. Gorell, C. Johnson, and B. Rybicki Occupational exposures to metals as risk factors for Parkinson's disease Neurology 48 3 1997 650 658
155. P. Zatta, R. Lucchini, and S. van Rensburg The role of metals in neurodegenerative processes: aluminum, manganese, and zinc Brain Res Bull 62 2003 15 28
156. J. Gorell, E. Peterson, and B. Rybicki Multiple risk factors for Parkinson's disease J Neurol Sci 217 2 2004 169 174
157. F. Jiménez-Jiménez, J. Molina, and M. Aguilar Cerebrospinal fluid levels of transition metals in patients with Parkinson's disease J Neural Transm 105 1998 497 505
158. E. Mendez-Alvarez, R. Soto-Otero, and A. Hermida-Ameijeiras Effects of aluminum and zinc on the oxidative stress caused by 6-hydroxydopamine autoxidation: relevance for the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease Biochim Biophys Acta 1586 2001 155 168
159. M.G. Spillantini, M.L. Schmidt, and R. Jakes α-Synuclein in Lewy bodies Nature 388 1997 839 840
160. E. Altschuler Aluminum-containing antacids as a cause of idiopathic Parkinson's disease Med Hypotheses 53 1 1999 22 23
161. R.R. Strang The association of gastro-duodenal ulceration and Parkinson's disease Med J Aust 52 1965 842 843
162. H. Shuichi, T. Mukai, and K. Kurosaki Modification of the striatal dopaminergic neuron system by carbon monoxide exposure in free-moving rats, as determined by in vivo brain microdialysis Arch Toxicol 76 2002 596 605
163. G. Pezzoli, M. Canesi, and A. Antonini Hydrocarbon exposure and Parkinson's disease Neurology 55 5 2000 667 673
164. A. Jaques, J. Gamble, and S. Tsai Hydrocarbon exposure and Parkinson's disease [letter] Neurology 57 2 2001 371
165. C. Tanner, S. Goldman, and D. Aston Smoking and Parknson's disease in twins Neurology 58 2002 581 588
166. K. Parain, C. Hapdey, and E. Rousselet Cigarette smoke and nicotine protect dopaminergic neurons against the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6- tetrahydropyridine parkinsonian toxin Brain Res 984 2003 224 232
167. R. Soto-Otero, E. Mendez-Alvarez, and I. Sanchez-Sellero Reduction of rat brain levels of the endogenous dopaminergic proneurotoxinx 1,2,3,4- tetrehydroisoquinoline and 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-bet-carboline by cigarette smoke Neurosci Lett 298 3 2001 187 190
168. R. Maggio, M. Riva, and F. Vaglini Nicotine prevents experimental parkinsonism in rodents and induces striatal increase of neurotrophic factors J Neurochem 71 6 1998 2439 2446
169. H. Rosen, J. Lengenfelder, and B. Miller Frontotemportal dementia Neurol Clin 18 4 2000 979 992
170. J. Wallwork Zinc and the central nervous system Prog Food Nutr Sci 11 2 1987 203 247
171. J. Constantinidis, and R. Tissot Role of glutamate and zinc in the hippocampal lesions of Pick's disease G. Dichiara G. Gessa Glutamate as a neurotransmitter 1981 Raven Press New York 413 422
172. W. Ehmann, M. Alauddin, and T. Hossain Brain trace elements in Pick's disease Ann Neurol 15 1984 102 104
173. T.C. Smith, G.C. Gray, and J.D. Knoke Is systematic lupus erythematosus, amyotropic lateral sclerosis, or fibromyalgia associated with Persian Gulf War service: an examination of Department of Defense hospitalization data Am J Epidemiol 151 11 2000 1053 1059
174. L.S. Gresham, C.A. Molgaard, and A.L. Golbeck Amyotropic lateral sclerosis and occupational heavy metal exposure: a case-control study Neuroepidemiology 5 1986 29 38
175. R.J. Barohn, and L.P. Rowland Neurology and Gulf War veterans Neurology 59 2002 1484 1485
176. R.D. Horner, K.G. Kamins, and J.R. Feussner Occurrence of amyotropic lateral sclerosis among Gulf War veterans Neurology 61 6 2003 742 749
177. G. Jamal, S. Hansen, and F. Apartoloulos The "Gulf War syndrome:" is there evidence of dysfunction in the nervous system? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 60 1996 449 451
178. M.K. Sharief, J. Pridden, and R.S. Delamont Neurophysiologic analysis of neuromuscular symptoms in UK Gulf War veterans Neurology 59 2002 1518 1525
179. G.C. Gray, R.J. Reed, and K.S. Kaiser Self-reported symptoms and medical conditions among 11,868 Gulf War-era veterans Am J Epidemiol 155 2002 1033 1044
180. R.W. Haley Excess incidence of ALS in young Gulf War veterans Neurology 61 2003 750 756
181. M.R. Rose Gulf War service is an uncertain trigger for ALS Neurology 61 2003 730 731
182. C. Armon Occurrence of amyotropic lateral sclerosis among Gulf War veterans Neurology 62 6 2004 1027
183. T. Perry, C. Bergeron, and A. Biro B-N-Methylamino-L-alanine: chronic oral administration is not neurotoxic to mice J Neurol Sci 94 1989 173 180
184. L. Kurland, A. Hirano, and N. Malamus Parkinsonism-dementia complex, an endemic disease on the island of Guam Trans Am Neurol Assoc 86 1961 115 120
185. W. Wiederholt Neuroepidemiologic research initiatives on Guam: past and present Neuroepidemiology 18 1999 279 291
186. H. Morris, S. Al-Sarraj, and C. Schwab A clinical and pathological study of motor neurone disease on Guam Brain 124 2001 2215 2222
187. J. Pérez-Tur, L. Buée, and H. Morris Neurodegenerative diseases of Guam: analysis of TAU Neurology 53 2 1999 411 413
188. K. Gellein, R.M. Garruto, and T. Syversen Concentrations of Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Rb, V, and Zn in formalin-fixed brain tissue in amyotropic lateral sclerosis and Parkinsonism-dementia complex of Guam determined by high-resolution ICP-MS Biol Trace Elem Res 96 2003 39 60
189. P. Spencer, P. Nunn, and J. Hugon Motorneurone disease on Guam: possible role of food neurotoxin Lancet 1 1986 965
190. J. Wilson, I. Khabazian, and M. Wong Behavioral and neurological correlates of ALS-parkinsonism dementia complex in adult mice fed washed cyad flour Neuromolecular Med 1 3 2002 207 221
191. C. Armon Western pacific ALS/PDC and flying foxes: what's next? Neurology 61 2003 291
192. I. Khabazian, J. Bains, and D. Williams Isolation of various forms of sterol β-D-glucoside from the seed of Cyas circinalis: neurotoxicity and implications for ALS-parkinsonism dementia complex J Neurochem 82 2002 516 528
193. D. Reed, D. Labarthe, and K. Chen A cohort study of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and parkinsonism-dementia on Guam and Rota Am J Epidemiol 125 1987 92 100
194. P. Cox, S. Banack, and S. Murch Biomagnification of cyanobacterial neurotoxins and neurodegenerative disease among the Chamorro people of Guam Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100 23 2003 13380 13383
195. P. Cox, and O. Sacks Cyad neurotoxins, consumption of flying foxes, and ALS-PDC disease in Guam Neurology 58 2002 956 959
196. C. Plato, R. Garruto, and D. Galasko Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and parkinsonism-dementia complex of Guam: changing incidence rates during the past 60 years Am J Epidemiol 157 2 2003 149 157
197. P.S. Spencer Biological principles of chemical neurotoxicity P.S. Spencer H.H. Schaumburg A.C. Ludolph Experimental and clinical neurotoxicology 2nd edition 2000 Oxford University Press New York 3 54
198. H.H. Schaumburg Human neurotoxic disease P.S. Spencer H.H. Schaumburg A.C. Ludolph Experimental and clinical neurotoxicology 2nd edition 2000 Oxford University Press New York 55 82
199. J.C. Morris Evaluation of the demented patient J.C. Morris Handbook of dementing illnesses 1994 Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York 71 88