Therapy of HIV infection

Dermatologic Therapy

Volumn 17, Issue 6, 2004, Pages 449-464

  Chang, Yuchi C ^a   Tyring, Stephen K ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^b University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston   (United States)

Author keywords

AIDS; Antiretroviral therapy; HIV

Indexed keywords

ABACAVIR; ABACAVIR PLUS LAMIVUDINE PLUS ZIDOVUDINE; ACICLOVIR; AMPRENAVIR; AMPRENAVIR PHOSPHATE; ATAZANAVIR; DELAVIRDINE; DIDANOSINE; EFAVIRENZ; EMTRICITABINE; ENFUVIRTIDE; INDINAVIR; INTEGRASE INHIBITOR; LAMIVUDINE; LAMIVUDINE PLUS ZIDOVUDINE; LOPINAVIR PLUS RITONAVIR; MEVINOLIN; NELFINAVIR; NEVIRAPINE; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RITONAVIR; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE INHIBITOR; SAQUINAVIR; STAVUDINE; TENOFOVIR; TENOFOVIR DISOPROXIL; UNINDEXED DRUG; ZALCITABINE; ZIDOVUDINE; ZINTEVIR;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; AGRANULOCYTOSIS; ANOREXIA; ARTHRALGIA; BACTERIAL PNEUMONIA; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; BONE PAIN; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASE; CONFUSION; COUGHING; DEHYDRATION; DEPRESSION; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS; DIARRHEA; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG FEVER; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DYSPEPSIA; ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION; ESOPHAGUS ULCER; FATIGUE; FATTY LIVER; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GYNECOMASTIA; HEART BLOCK; HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA; HEPATITIS; HEPATITIS B; HOMOCYSTINURIA; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HUNGER; HYPERBILIRUBINEMIA; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERMENORRHEA; HYPERTRIGLYCERIDEMIA; INGROWN NAIL; JAUNDICE; KIDNEY FAILURE; LACTIC ACIDOSIS; LIVER TOXICITY; LUNG DISEASE; MENTAL DISEASE; MICTURITION DISORDER; MYALGIA; MYOPATHY; NAUSEA AND VOMITING; NEPHROLITHIASIS; NEUROPATHY; NEUTROPENIA; OSTEOPENIA; PANCREATITIS; PARESTHESIA; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; PHARYNGITIS; REVIEW; THIRST; VERTIGO; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

ANTI-HIV AGENTS; ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY, HIGHLY ACTIVE; HIV INFECTIONS; HIV-1; HUMANS; PROTEASE INHIBITORS; REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE INHIBITORS;

EID: 10644294654     PISSN: 13960296     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04050.x     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. AIDS epidemic update, December 2003, WHO D/UNAIDS. Available at: http://www.unaids.org/wac/2000/wad00/files/WAD_epidemic_report.html. Accessed January 5, 2003.
2. Schwarte JJ, Myskowski PL. Molluscum contagiosum in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection: a review of 27 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 1992: 27: 583-588.
3. Cockerell CJ, Leboit PE. Bacillary angiomatosis: a newly characterized, pseudoneoplastic, infectious, cutaneous vascular disorder. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990: 22: 501-512.
4. Cockerell CJ, Whitlow MA, Webster GF, Friedman AE. Epithelioid angiomatosis: a distinct vascular disorder in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or AIDS-related complex. Lancet 1987: 2: 654-656.
5. Ray MC, Gately LE III. Dermatologic manifestations of HIV infection and AIDS. Infect Dis Clin N Am 1994: 8: 583-605.
6. Rosenthal D, Leboit PE, Klumpp L, Berger TG. Human immunodeficiency virus-associated eosinophilic folliculitis: a unique dermatosis associated with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. Arch Dermatol 1991: 127: 206-209.
7. Sack JB. Disseminated infection due to Mycobacterium fortuitum in a patient with AIDS. Rev Infect Dis 1990: 12: 961-963.
8. Stack RJ, Bickley LK, Coppel IG. Miliary tuberculosis presenting as skin lesions in a patient with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990: 23: 1031-1035.
9. Straus WL, Ostroff SM, Jernigan DB et al. Clinical and epidemiologic characteristics of Mycobacterium haemophilum, an emerging pathogen in immunocompromised patients. Ann Intern Med 1994: 120: 118-125.
10. Havlir DV, Marschner IC, Hirsch MS, et al. Maintenance antiretroviral therapies in HIV-infected patients with undetectable plasma HIV RNA after triple-drug therapy. AIDS Clin Trials Group Study 343 Team N Engl J Med 1998: 339: 1261-1268.
11. Carpenter CC, Fischl MA, Hammer SM, et al. Antiretroviral therapy for HIV Infection in 1997: updated recommendations of the International AIDS Society - USA panel. JAMA 1997: 277: 1962-69.
12. Rosenthal T. Efavirenz added to treatment guidelines for children. Infect Dis Child 1999: 12: 11-13.
13. Shafer RW, Vuitton DA. Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for the treatment of infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Biomed Pharmacother 1999: 53: 73-86.
14. Furtado MR, Callaway DS, Phair JP, et al. Persistence of HIV-1 transcription in peripheral-blood mononuclear cells in patients receiving potent antiretroviral activity. N Engl J Med 1999: 340: 1614-1622.
15. Zhang HG, Dornadula M, Beumont L, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the semen of men receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med 1998: 339: 1803-1809.
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Report of the NIH Panel to Define Principles of Therapy of HIV Infection and Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in HIV-infected Adults and Adolescents. MMWR 1998: 47 (No. RR-5): 1-32.
17. Cardo DM, Culver DH, Ciesielski CA, et al. A case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health care workers after percutaneous exposure. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Needlestick Surveillance Group. N Engl J Med 1997: 337: 1485-1490.
18. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health care workers after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood - France, United Kingdom, and United States. January 1988-August 1994. MMWR 1995: 44: 929-933.
19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Public Health Service. Guidelines for the Management of Health Care Worker Exposures to HIV and Recommendations for Post-exposure Prophylaxis. MMWR 1998: 47 (No. RR-7): 1-28.
20. Connor EM, Sperling RS, Gelber R, et al. Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. N Engl J Med 1994: 331: 1173-1180.
21. Sperling RS, Shapiro DE, Coombs RW, et al. Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group. N Engl J Med 1996: 335: 1621-1629.
22. Wiktor SZ, Ekpini E, Karon JM, et al. Short-course oral zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire: a randomized trial. Lancet 1999: 353: 781-785.
23. Dabis F, Msellati P, Meda N, et al. Six-month efficacy, tolerance, and acceptability of a short regimen of oral zidovudine to reduce vertical transmission of HIV in breastfed children in Cote d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso: a double-blind placebo-controlled multicentre trial. Lancet 1999: 353: 786-792.
24. Musoke P, Guay LA, Bagenda D, et al. Phase I/II study of the safety and pharmacokinetics of nevirapine in HIV-1-infected pregnant Ugandan women and their neonates (HIVNET006). AIDS 1999: 13: 479-486.
25. Fischl MA, Richman DD, Grieco MH, et al. The efficacy of azidothymidine (AZT) in the treatment of patients with AIDS and AIDS-related complex. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. N Engl J Med 1987: 317: 185-191.
26. Fischl MA, Richman DD, Hansen N, et al. The safety and efficacy of zidovudine (AZT) in the treatment of subjects with mildly symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV) infection. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The AIDS Clin Trials Group Ann Intern Med 1990: 112: 727-737.
27. Volberding PA, Lagakos SW, Koch MA, et al. Zidovudine in asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection: a controlled trial in persons with fewer than 500 CD4-positive cells per cubic millimeter. The AIDS Clinical Trials Group of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. N Engl J Med 1990: 322: 941-949.
28. Larder BA, Kemp SD. Multiple mutations in HIV-1 reverse transcriptase confer high-level resistance to zidovudine (AZT). Science 1989: 246: 1155-1158.
29. Richman DD. Resistance of clinical isolates of human immunodeficiency virus to antiretroviral agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993: 37: 1207-1213.
30. Duvic M, Crane MM, Conant M, Mahoney SE, Reveille JD, Lehrman SN. Zidovudine improves psoriasis in human immunodeficiency virus-positive males. Arch Dermatol 1994: 130: 447-451.
31. Fischer T, Schworer H, Vente C, Reich K, Ramadori G. Clinical improvement of HIV-associated psoriasis parallels a reduction of HIV viral load induced by effective antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 1999: 13: 628-629.
32. Collier AC, Coombs RW, Fischl MA, et al. Combination therapy with zidovudine and didanosine compared with zidovudine alone in HIV-1 infection. Ann Intern Med 1993: 119: 786-793.
33. Dalakas MC. Peripheral neuropathy and antiretroviral drugs. J Peripher Nerv Syst 2001: 6: 14-20.
34. Physicians' Desk Reference, 57th edn. Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics/Thomson Health care, 2003.
35. Shulman NSRA, Machekano RW, Shafer MA, et al. Katzenstein for the AIDS Clinical Trials Group 302 Study Team. Genotypic correlates of a virologic response to stavudine after zidovudine monotherapy. JAIDS 2001: 27: 377-380.
36. Wooltorton E. HIV drug stavudine (Zerit, d4T) and symptoms mimicking Guillain-Barre syndrome. CMAJ 2002: 166: 1067.
37. Katlama C, Pellegrin JL, Lacoste D, et al. a multicentre, open-label pilot study to evaluate the antiretroviral activity and safety of saquinavir with stavudine and zalcitabine. HIV Med 2001: 2: 20.
38. Henry K, Wallace RJ, Bellman PC, et al. Twice-daily triple nucleoside intensification treatment with lamivudine-zidovudine plus abacavir sustains suppression of human deficiency virus type 1: results of the TARGET group. J Inf Dis 2001: 183: 571-178.
39. Paluge SM, Good SS, Miller WH. Abacavir (1592), a second generation nucleoside HIV reverse transcriptase inhibitor. Int Antiviral News 1998: 6: 7.
40. Kellener K, Mellors J, Lederman M, et al. Activity of abacavir (1592) combined with protease inhibitors in therapy naïve patients. 12th World AIDS Conf June 28-July 3, 1998: #12210: 58. Geneva, Switzerland.
41. Mellors J, Lederman M, Haas D, et al. Durable activity of Ziagen (abacavir, ABC) combined with protease inhibitors (PI) in therapy naïve adults. 6th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections January 31-February 4, 1999: #625: 185. Chicago, Illinois.
42. Walter H, Schmidt B, Werwein M, Schwingel E, Korn K. Prediction of abacavir resistance from genotypic data: impact of zidovudine and lamivudine resistance in vitro and in vivo. Antimicrobial Agents Chemotherapy 2002: 46: 89-94.
43. Martin AM, Nolan D, Gaudieri S, et al. Predisposition to abacavir hypersensitivity conferred by HLA-B*5701 and a haplotypic Hsp70-Hom variant. Proceedings of the Natl Aca Sci USA [Epub Ahead of Print] March 15, 2004.
44. Shapiro M, Ward KM, Stern JJ. A near fatal hypersensitivity reaction to abacavir: case report and literature review. AIDS 2001: 11: 222-226.
45. Hervey PS, Perry CM. Abacavir: a review of its clinical potential in patients with HIV infection. Drugs 2000: 60: 447-479.
46. Escaut L, Liotier JY, Albengres E, Cheminot N, Vittecoq D. Abacavir rechallenge has to be avoided in case of hypersensitivity reaction. AIDS 1999: 13: 1419-1420.
47. Frissen PH, de Vries J, Weigel HM, Brinkman K. Severe anaphylactic shock after rechallenge with abacavir without preceding hypersensitivity. AIDS 2001: 15: 289.
48. Peyriere H, Nocolas J, Siffert M, Demoly P, Hillaire-Buys D, Reynes J. Hypersensitivity related to abacavir in two members of a family. Ann Pharmacother 2001: 35: 1291-1292.
49. Frissen PHJ, deVries J, Weigel HM, Brinkman K. Severe anaphylactic shock after rechallenge with abacavir without preceding hypersensitivity. AIDS 2001: 15: 289-292.
50. Loeliger AE, Steel H, Mcguirk S, Powell WS, Hetherington SV. The abacavir hypersensitivity reaction and interruptions in therapy. AIDS 2001: 15: 1325.
51. Szczech GM, Wang LH, Walsh JP, Rousseau FS. Reproductive toxicology profile of emtricitabine in mice and rabbits. Reprod Toxicol 2003: 17: 95-108.
52. Squires K, Pozniak AL, Pierone G Jr, et al., for the Study 907 Team. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in nucleoside-resistant HIV-1 infection: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2003: 139: 313-320.
53. Verheist D, Monge M, Meynard JL, et al. Fanconi syndrome and renal failure induced by tenofovir: a first case report. Am J Kid Dis 2003: 40: 1331-1333.
54. Reynes J, et al. Renal tubular injury and severe hypophosphoremia (Fanconi Syndrome) associated with tenofovir therapy. Tenth Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections February 10-14, 2003: abstract 717. Boston.
55. Blick G, et al. Tenofovir may cause severe hypophosphatemia in HIV-AIDS patients with prior adefovir-induced renal tubular acidosis. Tenth Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections February 10-14, 2003: abstract 718. Boston.
56. Murphy MD, O'Hearn M, Chou S. Fatal lactic acidosis and acute renal failure after addition of tenofovir to an antiretroviral regimen containing didanosin. Clin Infect Dis 2003: 36: 1082-85. Available at: http://www.journals. uchicago.edu/CID/journal/issues/v36n8/30195/30195.html, accessed May 15, 2004.
57. Creput C, et al. Renal lesions on HIV-1 positive patient treated with tenofovir. AIDS 2003: 17: 935-947.
58. Letter to health care professionals. RE: High rate of virological failure in patients with HIV infection treated with a once-daily triple NRTI regimen containing didanosine, lamivudine and tenofovir. Dated October 14, 2002.
59. Holodniy M, Katzenstein DA, Sengupta S, et al. Detection and quantification of human immunodeficiency virus RNA in patient serum by use of the polymerase chain reaction. J Infect Dis 1991: 163: 862-866.
60. Nunberg JH, Schleif WA, Boots EJ, et al. Viral resistance to human immunodeficiency virus type 1: Specific pyridinone reverse transcriptase inhibitors. J Virol 1991: 65: 4887-4892.
61. Schmit JC, Weber B. Recent advances in antiretroviral therapy and HIV infection monitoring. Intervirology 1997: 40: 304-321.
62. Richman D, Havlir D, Corbeil J, et al. Nevirapine resistance mutations of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 selected during therapy. J Virol 1994: 68: 1660-1666.
63. Havlir D, Cheeseman SH, Mclaughlin M, et al. High-dose nevirapine: safety, pharmacokinetics, and antiviral effect in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis 1995: 171: 537-545.
64. Barner A, Myers M. Nevirapine and rashes. Lancet 1998: 351: 1133.
65. Knobel H, Miro JM, Domingo P, et al., for the GESIDA 09/ 99 Study Group. Failure of short-term prednisone regimen to prevent nevirapine-associated rash: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial: the GESIDA 09/99 study. JAIDS 2001: 28: 14-18.
66. D'Aquila RT, Hughes MD, Johnson VA, et al. Nevirapine, zidovudine and didanosine compared with zidovudine and didanosine in patients with HIV-1 infection. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Natl Inst Allergy Infectious Dis AIDS Clin Trials Group Protocol 241 Invest Ann Intern Med 1996: 124: 1019-1030.
67. Gangar M, Arias G, O'Brien JG, Kemper CA. Frequency of cutaneous reactions on rechallenge with nevirapine and delavirdine. Ann Pharmacother 2000: 34: 839-842.
68. Bellman PC. Clinical experience with adding delavirdine to combination therapy in patients in whom multiple antiretroviral treatment including protease inhibitors has failed. AIDS 1998: 12: 1333-1340.
69. Havlir DV, Lange JMA. New antiretrovirals and new combinations. AIDS 1998: 12 (Suppl. A): S165-S174.
70. Scott LJ, Perry CM. Delavirdine: a review of its use in HIV infection. Drugs 2000: 60: 1411-1444.
71. Taylor S, Reynolds H, Sabin CA, et al. Penetration of efavirenz into the male genital tract: drug concentrations and antiviral activity in semen and blood of HIV-1 infected men. AIDS 2001: 15: 2051-2053.
72. Hill JB, Sheffield JS, Zeeman GG, Wendel GD Jr. Hepatotoxicity with antiretroviral treatment of pregnant women. Obstetrics Gynecol 2001: 98: 909-910.
73. Murdaca G, Campelli A, Setti M, Indiveri F, Puppo F. Complete remission of AIDS/Kaposi's sarcoma after treatment with a combination of two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and one non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor. AIDS 2002: 16: 304-305.
74. Peyriere H, Mauboussin J-M, Rouanet I, Fahre J, Reynes J, Hillaire-Buys D. Management of sudden psychiatric disorders related to efavirenz. AIDS 2001: 15: 1323-1324.
75. Marzolini C, Telenti A, Decosterd L, Greud G, Biollaz J, Buclin T. Efavirenz plasma levels can predict treatment failure and central nervous system side effects in HIV-1 infected patients. AIDS 2001: 15: 71-75.
76. Phillips EJ, Kuriakose B, Knowles SR. Efavirenz-induced skin eruption and successful desensitization. Ann Pharmacotherapy 2002: 36: 430-432.
77. Gallant JE, Deresinski S. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate. CID 2003: 37: 944-950.
78. Treudler R, Husak R, Raisova M, Orfanos CE, Tebbe B. Efavirenz-induced photoallergic dermatitis. In HIV (Correspondence) AIDS 2001: 15: 1085-1087.
79. Behrens GMN, Stoll M, Schmidt RE. Pulmonary hypersensitivity reaction induced by efavirenz. Lancet 2001: 357: 1503-1504.
80. Caso JAA, Prieto JdM, Casas E, Sanz J. Gynecomastia without lipodystrophy syndrome in HIV-infected men treated with efavirenz. AIDS 2001: 15: 1447-1452.
81. Debouck C. The HIV-1 protease as a therapeutic target for AIDS. AIDS Res Human Retroviruses 1992: 8: 153-164.
82. Markowitz M, Saag M, Powderly WG, et al. A preliminary study of ritonavir, an inhibitor of HIV-1 protease, to treat HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med 1995: 333: 1534-1539.
83. Smith W, Nassar N, Gregg C, Skiest D. Protease inhibitor-based therapy is associated with decreased HIV-related health care costs in men treated at a Veteran's Administration hospital. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1999: 20: 28-33.
84. Domingo P, Perez A, Torres OH, Montiel JA, Vazquez G. Lipodystrophy in HIV-1-infected patients. Lancet 1999: 354: 868.
85. Mercie P, Tchamgoue S, Dabis F, Pellegrin JL Lipodystrophy in HIV-1-infected patients. Lancet 1999: 354: 867-868.
86. Buss N, Duff F. Protease inhibitors in HIV infection. Lipodystrophy may be a consequence of prolonged survival. BMJ 1999: 318: 122.
87. Hadigan C, Meigs JB, Rabe J, et al. Framingham Heart Study. Increased PAI-1 and tPA antigen levels are reduced with metformin therapy in HIV-infected patients with fat redistribution and insulin resistance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001: 86: 939-943.
88. Kosel BW, Aweeka FT, Benowitz NL, et al. The effects of cannabinoids on the pharmacokinetics of indinavir and nelfinavir. AIDS 2002: 16: 43-550.
89. Condra JH, Schleif WA, Blahy OM, et al. In vivo emergence of HIV-1 variants resistant to multiple protease inhibitors. Nature 1995: 374: 569-571.
90. Mitsuyasu RT, Skolnik PR, Cohen SR, et al. Activity of the soft gelatin formulation of saquinavir in combination therapy in antiretroviral-naïve patients. Nv15355 Study Team AIDS 1998: 12: F103-F109.
91. Hugen PW, Burger DM, Koopmans PP, et al. Saquinavir soft-gel capsules (Fortovase) give lower exposure than expected, even after a high-fat breakfast. Pharm World Sci 2002: 24: 83-86.
92. Dube MP, Johnson DL, Currier JS, Leedom JM. Protease inhibitor-associated hyperglycemia. Lancet 1997: 350: 713-714.
93. Aceti A, Pasquazzi C, Zechini B, De Bac C, for the LIVER-HAART Group. Hepatotoxicity development during antiretroviral therapy containing protease inhibitors in patients with HIV. The role of hepatitis B and C virus infection. JAIDS 2002: 29: 41-48.
94. Nielsen H. Hypermennorhoea associated with ritonavir [letter]. Lancet 1999: 353: 811-812.
95. Routy J-P, Smith GHR, Blank DW, Gilfix BM. Plasmapheresis in the treatment of an acute pancreatitis due to protease inhibitor-induced hypertriglyceridemia. J Clin Apheresis 2001: 16: 157-159.
96. Bachmeyer C, Blum L, Cordier F, et al. Early ritonavir-induced maculopapular eruption. Dermatology 1997: 195: 301-302.
97. Colson AE, Keller MJ, Sax PE, Pettus PT, Platt R, Choo PW. Male sexual dysfunction associated with antiretroviral therapy. JAIDS 2002: 30: 27-32.
98. Piliero PJ, Gianoukakis AG. Ritonavir-associated hyperparathyroidism, osteopenia and bone pain. AIDS 2002: 16: 1565-1566.
99. Chaudry MN, Shepp DH. Antiretroviral agents: current usage. Dermatol Clin 1997: 15: 319-329.
100. Boubaker K, Sudre P, Bally F, et al. Changes in renal function associated with indinavir. AIDS 1998: 12: F249-F254.
101. Bernasconi E, Uhr M, Magenta L, Ranno A, Telenti A, for the Swiss Hiv Cohort Study. Homocystinaemia in HIV-infected patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2001: 15: 1081-1082.
102. Hanabusa H, Tagami H, Hataya H. Renal atrophy associated with long-term treatment with indinavir. N Eng J Med 1999: 340: 392-393.
103. Sollima S, Osio M, Muscia F, et al. Protease inhibitors and erectile dysfunction. AIDS 2001: 15: 2331-2333.
104. Herman JS, Ives NJ, Nelson M, Gazzard BG, Easterbroook PJ. Incidence and risk factors for the development of indinavir-associated renal complications. J Antimicrobiol Chemother 2001: 48: 355-360.
105. Manfredi R, Chiodo F. Limits of deep salvage antiretroviral therapy with nelfinavir plus either efavirenz or nevirapine, in highly pre-treated patients with HIV disease. Int J Antimicrobial Agents 2001: 17: 511-516.
106. Manfredi R, Calza L, Chiodo F. Gynecomastia associated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. Ann Pharmacotherapy 2001: 35: 438-439.
107. Scott T, Garris C, Rogers M, Graham N, Garrett L, Pedneault L. Safely profile and tolerability of amprenavir in patients enrolled in an early access program. Clin Ther 2001: 23: 252-259.
108. Package insert. Agenerase (amprenavir). Research Triangle Park, NC: Glaxo Wellcome, May 2000.
109. Sohma Y, Hayashi Y, Ito T, Matsumoto H, Kimura T, Kiso Y. Development of water-soluble prodrugs of the HIV-1 protease inhibitor KNI-727: importance of the conversion time for high gastrointestinal absorption of prodrugs based on spontaneous chemical cleavage. J Med Chem 2003: 46: 4124-4235.
110. Jack D. SOLO: encouraging results for fosamprenavir. Inpharm Weekly 2003: 1371/1371: 7-8.
111. Horban A, et al. Favorable increases in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) concentrations in chronic HIV-infected therapy naïve subjects receiving 908/R QD in the SOLO Study. Abstract F8/3. Program and Abstracts of the 9th European Conference on AIDS (9th EACS). Warsaw, Poland, October 29, 2003.
112. Aids Alert. Atazanavir found to help improve lipid profile. IDSA study offers good news for HIV care. Aids Alert January 18 2003: 7-8.
113. Sanne I, Piliero P, Squires K, Thiry A, Schnittman S, for the AI424-007 Clinical Trial Group. Results of a phase 2 clinical trial at 48 weeks (AI424-007): a dose-ranging, safety, and efficacy comparative trial of atazanavir at three doses in combination with didanosine and stavudine in antiretroviral-naïve subjects. JAIDS 2003: 32: 18-29.
114. Haas DW, Zala C, Schrader S, et al., for the Protocol AI424-009 Study Group. Therapy with atazanavir plus saquinavir in patients failing highly active antiretroviral therapy: a randomized comparative pilot trial. AIDS 2003: 17: 1339-1349.
115. Goldsmith DR, Perry CM. Atazanavir. Drugs 2003: 63: 1679-1693,1694-1695.
116. Rollet F, et al. Tenofovir-related Fanconi syndrome with nephrogenic diabetes insipidus in a patient with acquired immune deficiency syndrome: the role of lopinavir-ritonavir-didanosine. Clin Infect Dis 2003: 37: 174-76. Available at: http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/CID/journal/issues/v37n12/31867/ 31867.html, accessed May 15, 2004.
117. Lim ML, et al. A two-way drug interaction between lopinavir/ritonavir and phenytoin. Abstract 535 (poster). 10th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Boston, MA, February 10-14, 2003.
118. Lazzarin A, Clotet B, Cooper D, et al. Efficacy of enfuvirtide in patients infected with drug-resistant HIV-1 in Europe and Australia. N Eng J Med 2003: 348: 2186-2195.
119. Lalezari JP, Henry K, O'Hearn M, et al. Enfuvirtide, an HIV-1 fusion inhibitor, for drug-resistant HIV infection in North and South America. N Engl J Med 2003: 348: 2175-2185. (Correction N Engl J Medical 2003: 349: 11).
120. Lalezari JP, Henry K, O'Hearn M, et al. Enfuvirtide, an HIV-1 fusion inhibitor, for drug-resistant HIV infection in North and South America. N Engl J Med 2003: 348: 2175-2185. (Correction N Engl J Medical 2003: 349: 11).
121. Sista P, Melby T, Dhingra U, et al. The fusion inhibitors T-20 and T-1249 demonstrate potential antiviral activity against clade B HIV-1 isolates resistant to reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors and non-B clades. 5th International Workshop on HIV Drug Resistance and Treatment Strategies June 4-8, 2001: Abstract 2. Scottsdale, AZ.
122. Ball RA, Kinchelow T, for the ISR Substudy Group. Injection site reactions with the HIV-1 fusion inhibitor enfuvirtide. J Am Acad Dermatol 2003: 49: 826-831.
123. Duckworth M. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, South Africa. First drug in a new class of HIV/AIDS treatments. ProCAARE March 17, 2003; Pharmacotherapy 2003: 23: 695-701.