New features in the treatment of androgen-independent prostate cancer

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 10, Issue 5, 2004, Pages 513-522

  Closset, Jean ^a   Ammar, Hayet ^a   Nguyen, Viet Ha ^a   Cornet, Anne ^a   Reiter, Eric ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIÈGE   (Belgium)

^b UMR85 PHYSIOLOGIE DE LA REPRODUCTION ET DES COMPORTEMENTS   (France)

Author keywords

Androgen; Cancer; Genes; Molecular therapy; Prostate

Indexed keywords

ANDROGEN; ANTIANDROGEN; APIGENIN; CALCITRIOL; DEXAMETHASONE; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR 2; ESTRADIOL; ESTROGEN RECEPTOR ALPHA; ESTROGEN RECEPTOR BETA; FAS LIGAND; FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR; FLAVONE DERIVATIVE; G PROTEIN COUPLED RECEPTOR; GENISTEIN; GROWTH FACTOR; HYPOPHYSIS HORMONE; ISOFLAVONE DERIVATIVE; MEPARTRICIN; PHYTOESTROGEN; PLATELET DERIVED GROWTH FACTOR; PROTEIN BCL 2; PROTEIN BCL XL; STEROID; TAMOXIFEN; TANGERETIN; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA1; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; UNINDEXED DRUG; VITAMIN; VITAMIN D;

ADVANCED CANCER; ANDROGEN BLOOD LEVEL; ANGIOGENESIS; APOPTOSIS; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER DIAGNOSIS; CANCER GROWTH; CANCER MORTALITY; CANCER RESISTANCE; CARCINOGENESIS; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL SURVIVAL; DRUG TARGETING; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; HUMAN; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MOLECULAR CLONING; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTATE CANCER; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

ANDROGENS; ANIMALS; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS; APOPTOSIS; HUMANS; MALE; PROSTATIC NEOPLASMS; RECEPTOR PROTEIN-TYROSINE KINASES; RECEPTORS, ANDROGEN;

EID: 1042268855     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1381612043453216     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Krieg M, Nass R, Tunn S. Effect of aging on endogenous level of 5 alpha-dihydrotestosterone, testosterone, estradiol, and estrone in epithelium and stroma of normal and hyperplastic human prostate. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993; 77(2): 375-81.
2. Greenlee RT, Hill-Harmon MB, Murray T, Thun M. Cancer statistics, 2001. CA Cancer J Clin 2001; 51(1): 15-36.
3. Wingo PA, Ries LA, Parker SL, Heath CW, Jr. Long-term cancer patient survival in the united states. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1998, 7(4): 271-82
4. Gnanapragasam VJ, Robson CN, Leung HY, Neal DE. Androgen receptor signalling in the prostate. BJU Int 2000; 86(9): 1001-13.
5. Culig Z, Hobisch A, Cronauer MV, Radmayr C, Hittmair A, Zhang J, et al. Regulation of prostatic growth and function by peptide growth factors. Prostate 1996; 28(6): 392-405.
6. Hunter T. Signaling-2000 and beyond. Cell 2000; 100(1): 113-27.
7. Djakiew D. Dysregulated expression of growth factors and their receptors in the development of prostate cancer. Prostate 2000; 42(2): 150-60.
8. Nelson JB, Hedican SP, George DJ, Reddi AH, Piantadosi S, Eisenberger MA, et al. Identification of endothelin-1 in the pathophysiology of metastatic adenocarcinoma of the prostate. Nat Med 1995; 1(9): 944-9.
9. Pirtskhalaishvili G, Nelson JB. Endothelium-derived factors as paracrine mediators of prostate cancer progression. Prostate 2000; 44(1): 77-87.
10. Barki-Harrington L, Daaka Y. Bradykinin induced mitogenesis of androgen independent prostate cancer cells. J Urol 2001; 165(6Pt 1): 2121-5.
11. Ismail AH, Landry F, Aprikian AG, Chevalier S. Androgen ablation promotes neuroendocrine cell differentiation in dog and human prostate. Prostate 2002; 51(2): 117-25.
12. van Biesen T, Luttrell LM, Hawes BE, Lefkowitz RJ. Mitogenic signaling via g protein-coupled receptors. Endocr Rev 1996; 17(6): 698-714.
13. Daub H, Weiss FU, Wallasch C, Ullrich A. Role of transactivation of the EGF receptor in signalling by g-protein-coupled receptors. Nature 1996; 379(6565): 557-60.
14. Prenzel N, Zwick E, Daub H, Leserer M, Abraham R, Wallasch C, et al. EGF receptor transactivation by g-protein-coupled receptors requires metalloproteinase cleavage of prohb-EGF. Nature 1999; 402(6764): 884-8.
15. Reiter E, Hennuy B, Bruyninx M, Cornet A, Klug M, McNamara M, et al. Effects of pituitary hormones on the prostate. Prostate 1999; 38(2): 159-65.
16. Torring N, Vinter-Jensen L, Pedersen SB, Sorensen FB, Flyvbjerg A, Nexo E. Systemic administration of insulin-like growth factor i (IGF-I) causes growth-of the rat prostate. J Urol 1997; 158(1): 222-7.
17. Gschwend JE. [apoptosis - principles and importance of programmed cell death for prostatic carcinoma]. Urologe A 1996; 35(5): 390-9.
18. Schmitt CA, Lowe SW. Apoptosis and therapy. J Pathol 1999; 187(1): 127-37.
19. Kidd VJ. Proteolytic activities that mediate apoptosis. Annu Rev Physiol 1998; 60: 533-73.
20. Banerjee PP, Banerjee S, Brown TR. Bcl-2 protein expression correlates with cell survival and androgen independence in rat prostatic lobes. Endocrinology 2002; 143(5): 1825-32.
21. Boise LH, Thompson CB. Bcl-XL can inhibit apoptosis in cells that have undergone fas-induced protease activation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94(8): 3759-64.
22. di Sant'Agnese PA. Neuroendocrine differentiation in human prostatic carcinoma. Hum Pathol 1992; 23: 287-296.
23. Steiner MS. Role of peptide growth factors in the prostate: A review. Urology 1993; 42(1): 99-110.
24. Jacobs SC, Story MT, Sasse J, Lawson RK. Characterization of growth factors derived from the rat ventral prostate. J Urol 1988; 139(5): 1106-10.
25. Kim HG, Kassis J, Souto JC, Turner T, Wells A. Egf receptor signaling in prostate morphogenesis and tumorigenesis. Histol Histopathol 1999; 14(4): 1175-82.
26. Green S, Furr B. Prospects for the treatment of endocrine-responsive tumours. Endocr Relat Cancer 1999; 6(3): 349-71.
27. Sherwood ER, Lee C. Epidermal growth factor-related peptides and the epidermal growth factor receptor in normal and malignant prostate. World J Urol 1995; 13(5): 290-6.
28. Barton J, Blackledge G, Wakeling A. Growth factors and their receptors: New targets for prostate cancer therapy. Urology 2001; 58(2 Suppl 1): 114-22.
29. Sokoloff MH, Tso CL, Kaboo R, Taneja S, Pang S, de Kernion JB, et al. In vitro modulation of tumour progression associated properties of hormone refractory prostate carcinoma cell lines by cytokines. Cancer 1996; 77(9): 1862-72.
30. Culig Z, Hobisch A, Cronauer MV, Radmayr C, Trapman J, Hittmair A, et al. Androgen receptor activation in prostatic tumour cell lines by insulin-iike growth factor-1, keratinocyte growth factor, and epidermal growth factor. Cancer Res 1994; 54(20): 5474-8.
31. Ye D, Mendelsohn J, Fan Z. Androgen and epidermal growth factor down-regulate cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27kipl and costimulate proliferation of mda pca 2a and mda pca 2b prostate cancer cells. Clin Cancer Res 1999; 5(8): 2171-7.
32. Reese DM, Small EJ, Magrane G, Waldman FM, Chew K, Sudilovsky D. Her2 protein expression and gene amplification in androgen-independent prostate cancer. Am J Clin Pathol 2001; 116(2): 234-9.
33. Klapper LN, Glathe S, Vaisman N, Hynes NE, Andrews GC, Sela M, et al. The erbb-2/her2 oncoprotein of human carcinomas may function solely as a shared coreceptor for multiple stroma-derived growth factors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96(9): 4995-5000.
34. Yeh S, Lin HK, Kang HY, Thin TH, Lin MF, Chang C. From her2/neu signal cascade to androgen receptor and its coactivators: A novel pathway by induction of androgen target genes through map kinase in prostate cancer cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96(10): 5458-63.
35. Wen Y, Hu MC, Makino K, Spohn B, Bartholomeusz G, Yan DH, et al. Her-2/neu promotes androgen-independent survival and growth of prostate cancer cells through the akt pathway. Cancer Res 2000; 60(24): 6841-5.
36. Mellon K, Thompson S, Charlton RG, Marsh C, Robinson M, Lane DP, et al. P53, c-erbb-2 and the epidermal growth factor receptor in the benign and malignant prostate. J Urol 1992; 147(2): 496-9.
37. Kuhn EJ, Kurnot RA, Sesterhenn IA, Chang EH, Moul JW. Expression of the c-erbb-2 (her-2/neu) oncoprotein in human prostatic carcinoma. J Urol 1993; 150(5 Pt 1): 1427-33.
38. Cobleigh MA, Vogel CL, Tripathy D, Robert NJ, Scholl S, Fehrenbacher L, et al. Multinational study of the efficacy and safety of humanized anti-her2 monoclonal antibody in women who have her2-overexpressing metastatic breast cancer that has progressed after chemotherapy for metastatic disease. J Clin Oncol 1999; 17(9): 2639-48.
39. King CR, Kasprzyk PG, Fischer PH, Bird RE, Turner NA. Preclinical testing of an anti-erbb-2 recombinant toxin. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1996; 38(1): 19-25.
40. Hellawell GO, Brewster SF. Growth factors and their receptors in prostatic cancer. BJU. International 2002; 89: 230-40.
41. Ittman M, Mansukhani A. Expression of fibroblast growth factors (fgfs) and fgf receptors in human prostate. J Urol 1997; 157(1): 351-6.
42. Yan G, Fukabori Y, McBride G, Nikolaropolous S, McKeehan WL. Exon switching and activation of stromal and embryonic fibroblast growth factor (fgf)-fgf receptor genes in prostate epithelial cells accompany stromal independence and malignancy. Mol Cell Biol 1993; 13(8): 4513-22.
43. Hierowski MT, McDonald MW, Dunn L, Sullivan JW. The partial dependency of human prostatic growth factor on steroid hormones in stimulating thymidine incorporation into DNA. J Urol 1987; 138(4): 909-12.
44. Chott A, Sun Z, Morganstern D, Pan J, Li T, Susani M, et al. Tyrosine kinases expressed in vivo by human prostate cancer bone marrow metastases and loss of the type 1 insulin-like growth factor receptor. Am J Pathol 1999; 155(4): 1271-9.
45. Buchdunger E, Cioffi CL, Law N, Stover D, Ohno-Jones S, Druker BJ, et al. Abl protein-tyrosine kinase inhibitor sti571 inhibits in vitro signal transduction mediated by c-kit and platelet-derived growth factor receptors. J Pharmacol Exp, Ther 2000; 295(1): 139-45.
46. Reiter E, McNamara M, Closset J, Hennen G. Expression and functionality of luteinizing hormone/chorionic gonadotropin receptor in the rat prostate. Endocrinology 1995; 136(3): 917-23.
47. Ben-Josef E, Yang SY, Ji TH, Bidart JM, Garde SV, Chopra DP, et al. Hormone-refractory prostate cancer cells express functional follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (fshr). J Urol 1999; 161(3): 970-6.
48. Im DS, Heise CE, Harding MA, George SR, O'Dowd BF, Theodorescu D, et al. Molecular cloning and characterization of a lysophosphatidic acid receptor, edg-7, expressed in prostate. Mol Pharmacol 2000; 57(4): 753-9.
49. Ray GV, Barki-Harrington L, Kue PF, Daaka Y. Guanosine phosphate binding protein coupled receptors in prostate cancer: a review. J Urol 2002; 167: 1458-63
50. Nelson JB, Chan-Tack K, Hedicon, SP, Magnuson SR, Opgenorth TJ, Bova GS, et al. Endothelin 1 production and decrease endothelin B receptor expression in advanced prostate cancer. Cancer Res 1996; 56: 663-68
51. Gibbs JB. Anticancer drug targets: Growth factors and growth factor signaling. J Clin Invest 2000; 105(1): 9-13.
52. Nevalainen MT, Valve EM, Ingleton PM, Nurmi M, Martikainen PM, Harkonen PL. Prolactin and prolactin receptors are expressed and functioning in human prostate. J Clin Invest 1997; 99(4): 618-27.
53. Reiter E, Lardinois S, Klug M, Sente B, Hennuy B, Bruyninx M, et al. Androgen-independent effects of prolactin on the different lobes of the immature rat prostate. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1995; 112(1): 113-22.
54. Wennbo H, Kindblom J, Isaksson OG, Tornell J. Transgenic mice overexpressing the prolactin gene develop dramatic enlargement of the prostate gland. Endocrinology 1997; 138(10): 4410-5.
55. Hair WM, Gubbay O, Jabbour HN, Lincoln GA. Prolactin receptor expression in human testis and accessory tissues: localization and function. Mol Hum Reprod. 2002 Jul; 8(7): 606-11.
56. Ahonen TJ, Harkonen PL, Laine J, Rui H, Martikainen PM, Nevalainen MT. Prolactin is a survival factor for androgen-deprived rat dorsal and lateral prostate epithelium in organ culture. Endocrinology 1999; 140(11): 5412-2 1.
57. Janssen T, Darro F, Petein M, Raviv G, Pasteels JL, Kiss R, et al. In vitro characterization of prolactin-induced effects on proliferation in the neoplastic lncap, dul45, and pc3 models of the human prostate. Cancer 1996; 77(1): 144-9.
58. Sinha YN. Structural variants of prolactin: Occurrence and physiological significance. Endocr Rev 1995; 16(3): 354-69.
59. Chen TJ, Kuo CB, Tsai KF, Liu JW, Chen DY, Walker AM. Development of recombinant human prolactin receptor antagonists by molecular mimicry of the phosphorylated hormone. Endocrinology 1998; 139(2): 609-16.
60. Xu X, Kreye E, Kuo CB, Walker AM. A molecular mimic of phosphorylated prolactin markedly reduced tumour incidence and size when DU145 human prostate cancer cells were grown in nude mice. Cancer Res 2001; 61(16): 6098-104.
61. Xu X, Wu W, Williams V, Khong A, Chen YH, Deng C, et al. Opposite effects of unmodified prolactin and a molecular mimic of phosphorylated prolactin on morphology and the expression of prostate specific genes in the normal rat prostate. Prostate 2003; 54(1): 25-33.
62. Reiter E, Kecha O, Hennuy B, Lardinois S, Klug M, Bruyninx M, et al. Growth hormone directly affects the function of the different lobes of the rat prostate. Endocrinology 1995; 136(8): 3338-45.
63. Colao A, Marzullo P, Ferone D, Spieza S, Cerbone G, Marino V, et al. Prostatic hyperplasia: an unknown feature of acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83(3): 775-9.
64. Jungwirth A, Schally AV, Pinski J, Halmos G, Groot K, Armatis P, et al. Inhibition of in vivo proliferation of androgen-independent prostate cancers by an antagonist of growth hormone-releasing hormone. Br J Cancer 1997; 75(11): 1585-92.
65. Isaacs JT, Furuya Y, Berges R. The role of androgen in the regulation of programmed cell death/apoptosis in normal and malignant prostatic tissue. Semin Cancer Biol 1994; 5(5): 391-400.
66. Martikainen P, Kyprianou N, Isaacs JT. Effect of transforming growth factor-beta 1 on proliferation and death of rat prostatic cells. Endocrinology 1990; 127(6): 2963-8.
67. de la Taille A, Chen MW, Shabsigh A, Bagiella E, Kiss A, Buttyan R. Fas antigen/cd-95 upregulation and activation during castration-induced regression of the rat ventral prostate gland. Prostate 1999; 40(2): 89-96.
68. Ashkenazi A, Dixit VM, Death receptors: Signaling and modulation. Science 1998; 281(5381): 1305-8.
69. Guo Y, Kyprianou N. Overexpression of transforming growth factor TGF-beta1 type II receptor restores TGF-beta1 sensitivity and signaling in human prostate cancer cells. Cell Growth Differ 1998; 9(2): 185-93.
70. Guo Y, Kyprianou N. Restoration of transforming growth factor beta signaling pathway in human prostate cancer cells suppresses tumourigenicity via induction of caspase-1-mediated apoptosis. Cancer Res 1999; 59(6): 1366-71.
71. Stattin P, Westin P, Damber JE, Bergh A. Short-term cellular effects induced by castration therapy in relation to clinical outcome in prostate cancer. Br J Cancer 1998; 77(4): 670-5.
72. Suzuki T, Tahara H, Narula S, Moore KW, Robbins PD, Lotze MT. Viral interleukin 10 (IL-10), the human herpes virus 4 cellular 11-10 homologue, induces local anergy to allogeneic and syngeneic tumours. J Exp Med 1995; 182(2): 477-86.
73. Hedlund TE, Duke RC, Schleicher MS, Miller GJ. Fas-mediated apoptosis in seven human prostate cancer cell lines: Correlation with tumour stage. Prostate 1998; 36(2): 92-101.
74. Costa-Pereira AP, Cotter TG. Camptothecin sensitizes androgen-independent prostate cancer cells to anti-fas-induced apoptosis. Br J Cancer 1999; 80(3-4): 371-8.
75. Uslu R, Borsellino N, Frost P, Garban H, Ng CP, Mizutani Y, et al. Chemosensitization of human prostate carcinoma cell lines to anti-fas-mediated cytotoxicity and apoptosis. Clin Cancer Res 1997; 3(6): 963-72.
76. Hyer ML, Sudarshan S, Schwartz DA, Hannun Y, Dong JY, Norris JS. Quantification and characterization of the bystander effect in prostate cancer cells following adenovirus-mediated FasL expression. Cancer Gene Ther 2003; 10(4): 330-9.
77. Frost P, Ng CP, Belldegrun A, Bonavida B. Immunosensitization of prostate carcinoma cell lines for lymphocytes (ctl, til, lak)-mediated apoptosis via the fas-fas-ligand pathway of cytotoxicity. Cell Immunol 1997; 180(1): 70-83.
78. Walczak H, Miller RE, Ariail K, Gliniak B, Griffith TS, Kubin M, et al. Tumouricidal activity of tumour necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand in vivo. Nat Med 1999; 5(2): 157-63.
79. Walczak H, Degli-Esposti MA, Johnson RS, Smolak PJ, Waugh JY, Boiani N, et al. Trailr-2: A novel apoptosis-mediating receptor for trail. EMBO J 1997; 16(17): 53 86-97.
80. Chaudhary PM, Eby M, Jasmin A, Bookwalter A, Murray J, Hood L. Death receptor 5, a new member of the tnfr family, and dr4 induce fadd-dependent apoptosis and activate the nf-kappab pathway. Immunity 1997; 7(6): 821-30.
81. Nesterov A, Ivashchenko Y, Kraft AS. Tumour necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) triggers apoptosis in normal prostate epithelia] cells. Oncogene 2002; 21(7): 1135-40.
82. Hay BA, Wassarman DA, Rubin GM. Drosophila homologs of baculovirus inhibitor of apoptosis proteins function to block cell death. Cell 1995; 83(7): 1253-62.
83. Ng CP, Zisman A, Bonavida B. Synergy is achieved by complementation with Apo21/TRAIL and actinomycin D in Apo21/TRAIL-mediated apoptosis of prostate cancer cells: Role of xiap in resistance. Prostate 2002; 53(4): 286-99.
84. Newton K, Strasser A. The bcl-2 family and cell death regulation. Curr Opin Genet Dev 1998; 8(1): 68-75.
85. Lee C, Sensibar JA. Proteins of the rat prostate. II Synthesis of new proteins in the ventral lobe during castration-induced regression. J Urol 1987; 138(4): 903-8.
86. Sensibar JA, Sutkowski DM, Raffo A, Buttyan R, Griswold MD, Sylvester SR, et al. Prevention of cell death induced by tumour necrosis factor α in LNCaP cells by overexpression of sulphated glycoprotein-2 (clusterin). Cancer Res. 1995; 55: 2431-2437.
87. Comet A, Reiter E, Bruyninx M, Nguyen VH, Hennuy B, Hennen G, et al. Prostatic androgen repressed message-1 (PARM-1) may play a role in prostatic cell immortalisation. Prostate 2003; 56(3): 220-30.
88. Bruyninx M, Hennuy B, Comet A, Houssa P, Daukandt M, Reiter E, et al. A novel gene overexpressed in the prostate of castrated rats: Hormonal regulation, relationship to apoptosis and to acquired prostatic cell androgen independence. Endocrinology 1999; 140(10): 4789-99.
89. Perlman H, Zhang X, Chen MW, Walsh K, Buttyan R. An elevated bax/bcl-2 ration corresponds with the onset of prostate epithelial cell apoptosis. Cell Death Differ 1999; 6(1): 48-54.
90. Krajewska M, Krajewski S, Epstein J1, Shabaik A, Sauvagcot J, Song K, et al. Immunohistochemical analysis of bcl-2, bax, bcl-x, and mcl-1 expression in prostate cancers. Am J Pathol 1996; 148(5): 1567-76.
91. Newton K, Strasser A. The Bcl-2 family and cell death regulation. Curr Opin Genet Dev 1998; 8(1): 68-75.
92. Blaschuk OO, Burdzy K, Fritz IB. Purification and characterization of a cell-aggregating factor (clusterin), the major glycoprotein in Ram rete testis fluid. J Biol Chem 1983; 258(12): 7714-20.
93. Wilson MR, Easterbrook-Smith SB. Clusterin is a secreted mammalian chaperone. Trends Biochem Sci 2000; 25(3): 95-8.
94. Sensibar JA, Sutkowski DM, Raffo A, Buttyan R, Griswold MD, Sylvester SR, et al. Prevention of cell death, induced by tumour necrosis factor alpha in LNCaP cells by overexpression of sulfated glycoprotein-2 (clusterin). Cancer Res 1995; 55(11): 2431-7.
95. Miyake H, Nelson C, Rennie PS, Gleave ME. Acquisition of chemoresistant phenotype by overexpression of the antiapoptotic gene testosterone-repressed prostate message-2 in prostate cancer xenograft models. Cancer Res 2000; 60(9): 2547-54.
96. Miyake H, Nelson C, Rennie PS, Gleave ME. Acquisition of chemoresistant phenotype by overexpression of the anti-apoptotic gene testosterone repressed meesage-2 in prostate cancer xenograft models. Cancer 2000; 60(9): 2547-54.
97. Miyake H, Nelson C, Rennie PS, Gleave ME. Testosterone-repressed prostate message-2 is an antiapoptotic gene involved in progression to androgen independence in prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2000; 60(1): 170-6.
98. Reddy KB, Jin G, Karode MC, Harmony JA, Howe PH. Transforming growth factor beta (TGF β)-induced nuclear localization of apolipoprotein j/clusterin in epithelial cells. Biochemistry 1996; 35(19): 6157-63.
99. LaCasse EC, Baird S, Korneluk RG, MacKenzie AE. The inhibitors of apoptosis (iaps) and their emerging role in cancer. Oncogene 1998; 17(25): 3247-59.
100. Chen Z, Naito M, Hori S, Mashima T, Yamori T, Tsuruo T. A human iap-family gene, apollon, expressed in human brain cancer cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1999; 264(3): 847-54.
101. Kasof GM, Gomes BC. Livin, a novel inhibitor of apoptosis protein family member. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(5): 3238-46.
102. McEleny KR, Watson RW, Coffey RN, O'Neill AJ, Fitzpatrick JM. Inhibitors of apoptosis proteins in prostate cancer cell lines. Prostate 2002; 51(2): 133-40.
103. Reichel H, Koeffler HP, Norman AW. The role of the vitamin d endocrine system in health and disease. N Engl J Med 1989; 320(15): 980-91.
104. Corder EH, Guess HA, Hulka BS, Friedman GD, Sadler M, Vollmer RT, et al. Vitamin d and prostate cancer: A prediagnostic study with stored sera. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1993; 2(5): 467-72.
105. Schwartz GG, Hulka BS. Is vitamin d deficiency a risk factor for prostate cancer? (hypothesis). Anticancer Res 1990; 10(5A): 1307-11.
106. 3, a steroid hormone that produces biologic effects via both genomic and nongenomic pathways. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1992; 41(3-8): 231-40.
107. 3. J Biol Chem 1995; 270(12): 6639-43.
108. de Vos S, Holden S, Heber D, Elstner E, Binderup L, Uskokovic M, et al. Effects of potent vitamin d3 analogs on clonal proliferation of human prostate cancer cell lines. Prostate 1997; 31(2): 77-83.
109. Skowronski RJ, Peehl DM, Feldman D. Vitamin d and prostate cancer: 1, 25 dihydroxyvitamin d3 receptors and actions in human prostate cancer cell lines. Endocrinology 1993; 132(5): 195-260.
110. Xu HM, Tepper CG, Jones JB, Fernandez CE, Studzinski GP. 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin d3 protects h160 cells against apoptosis but down-regulates the expression of the bcl-2 gene. Exp Cell Res 1993; 209(2): 367-74.
111. Lewis TS, Shapiro PS, Alin NG. Signal transduction through map kinase cascades. Adv Cancer Res 1998; 74: 49-139.
112. Ahmed S, Johnson CS, Rueger RM, Trump DL. Calcitriol (1, 25-dihydroxycholecalciferol) potentiates activity of mitoxantrone/ dexamethaxone in an androgen. J Urol 2002; 168(2): 756-61.
113. Johnson CS, Hershberger PA, Trump DL. Vitamin D-related therapies in prostate cancer. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2002; 21(2): 147-58.
114. Aldercreutz H, Mazur W. Phyto-oestrogens and diseases. Ann Med 1997; 29(2): 95-120.
115. Putz O, Schwartz CH, Kim S, LeBlanc GA, Cooper RL, Prins GS. Neonatal low- and high-dose exposure to estradiol benzoate in the male rat: 1. Effects on the prostate gland. Biol Reprod 2001; 65(5): 1496-505.
116. Krege JH, Hodgin JB, Couse JF, Enmark E, Warner M, Mahler JF, et al. Generation and reproductive phenotypes of mice lacking estrogen receptor beta. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95(26): 15677-82.
117. Paech K, Webb P, Kuiper GG, Nilsson S, Gustafsson J, Kushner PJ, et al. Differential ligand activation of estrogen receptors eralpha and erbeta at ap1 sites. Science 1997; 277(5331): 1508-10.
118. Veldscholte J, Voorhorst-Ogink MM, Bolt-de Vries J, van Rooij HC, Trapman J, Mulder E. Unusual specificity of the androgen receptor in the human prostate tumour cell line LNCaP: High affinity for progestagenic and estrogenic steroids. Biochim Biophys Acta 1990; 1052(1): 187-94.
119. Yeh S, Chang C. Cloning and characterization of a specific coactivator, ARA70, for the androgen receptor in human prostate cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93(11): 5517-21.
120. McLaren J, Prentice A, Charnock-Jones DS, Millican SA, Muller KH, Sharkey AM, et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor is produced by peritoneal fluid macrophages in endometriosis and is regulated by ovarian steroids. J Clin Invest 1996; 98(2): 482-9.
121. Bracke ME, Charlier C, Bruyneel EA, Labit C, Mareel MM, Castronovo V. Tamoxifen restores the e-cadherin function in human breast cancer MCF-7/6 cells and suppresses their invasive phenotype. Cancer Res 1994; 54(17): 4607-9.
122. Bracke ME, Depypere HT, Boterberg T, Van Marck VL, Vennekens KM, Vanluchene E, et al. Influence of tangeretin on tamoxifen's therapeutic benefit in mammary cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999; 91(4): 354-9.
123. Shakutou S, Bandoh K, Yoshinaka Y, Kobayashi H, Yamanaka H. Effects of mepartricin, a polyene macrolide agent, on fecal excretion and serum concentration of estrogen and number of prostatic estrogen receptors in immature rats. Prostate 1999; 38(1): 17-27.
124. Cassell DJ, Choudhri S, Humphrey R, Martell RE, Reynolds T, Shanafelt A. B. Therapeutic enhancement of IL-2 through molecular design. Curr Pharm Design 2002; 8(24): 2171-83.
125. Hackney AC. Endurance exercise training and reproductive endocrine dysfunction in men: alterations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis. Curr Pharm Design 2001; 7(4): 261-73.
126. Patterson LH, Murray GI. Tumour cytochrome P450 and drug activation. Curr Pharm Design 2002; 8(15): 1335-47.