Molecular Machines

Accounts of Chemical Research

Volumn 31, Issue 7, 1998, Pages 405-414

  Balzani, Vincenzo ^a,c   Gómez López, Marcos ^b,d,e,f   Stoddart, J Fraser ^b,e,g  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF FERRARA   (Italy)

^d UNIVERSITY OF THE BASQUE COUNTRY UPV EHU   (Spain)

^e UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

^f ETH ZURICH   (Switzerland)

^g UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0542373936     PISSN: 00014842     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1021/ar970340y     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. Whitesides, G. M. Sci. Am. 1995, 273 (3), 114-117.
2. Robinson, A. L. Science (Washington, D.C.) 1984, 223, 267-268.
3. Feynman, R. P. Sat. Rev. 1960, 43, 45-47.
4. Lehn, J.-M. Supramolecular Chemistry, VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 1995.
5. (a) Lindsey, J. S. New J. Chem. 1991, 15, 153-180.
6. (b) Lawrence, D. S.; Jiang, T.; Levett, M. Chem. Rev. 1995, 95, 2229-2260.
7. (c) Philp, D.; Stoddart, J. F. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 1154-1196.
8. (d) Fredericks, J. R.; Hamilton, A. D. In Comprehensive Supramolecular Chemistry; Atwood, J. L., Davies, J. E. D., MacNicol, D. D., Vögtle, F., Eds.; Pergamon/ Elsevier: Oxford, 1996; Vol. 9, pp 565-594.
9. (a) Ringsdorf, H.; Schlalb, B.; Venzmer, J. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1988, 27, 115-158.
10. (b) Lupo, D.; Ringsdorf, H.; Schuster, A.; Seitz, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 10498-10506.
11. (c) Kimizika, N.; Handa, T.; Ichinose, I.; Kunitake, T. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1994, 33, 2483-2485.
12. (d) Imrie, C. T. Trends Polym. Sci. 1995, 3, 22-29.
13. (a) von Kiedrowski, G. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1986, 25, 932-935.
14. (b) Hong, J.-I.; Feng, Q.; Rotello, V.; Rebek, J., Jr. Acc. Chem. Res. 1994, 27, 198-203.
15. (c) Menger, F. M.; Eliseev, A. V.; Khanjin, N. A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 3613-3614.
16. (d) Sievers, D.; von Kiedrowski, G. Nature (London) 1994, 369, 221-224.
17. (e) Lee, D. H.; Granja, J. R.; Martínez, J. A.; Severin, K.; Ghadiri, M. R. Science (Washington, D.C.) 1996, 382, 525-527.
18. (f) Reinhoudt, D. N.; Rudkevich, D. M.; de Long, F. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 6880-6889.
19. (a) Walba, D. M. Tetrahedron 1985, 41, 3161-3212.
20. (b) Dietrich-Buchecker, C. O.; Sauvage, J.-P. Chem. Rev. 1987, 87, 795-810.
21. (c) Amabilino, D. B.; Stoddart, J. F. Chem. Rev. 1995, 95, 2725-2828.
22. (d) Funerui, D. P.; Lehn, J.-M.; Baum, G.; Fenske, D. Chem. Eur. J. 1997, 3, 99-104.
23. (e) Jager, R.; Vögtle, F. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 930-944.
24. (f) Amabilino, D. B.; Ashton, P. R.; Boyd, S. E.; Lee, J. Y.; Menzer, S.; Stoddart, J. F.; Williams, D. J. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 2070-2072.
25. When two or more integral chemical units are bound together without the assistance of any valence forces, they are said to be joined by a mechanical bond. See: Schill, G. Catenanes, Rotaxanes and Knots; Academic Press: New York, 1971.
26. Pseudorotaxanes result from strict self-assembly - which, in numerous instances, is commensurate with supramolecular synthesis - where stereoelectronically complementary subunits interact spontaneously to produce the final complexes under thermodynamic control. All the rotaxanes and catenanes mentioned in this Account are a result of self-assembly with covalent modification - that is, supramolecular assistance to molecular synthesis in this instance - to give the final compounds under kinetic control. For more details, see: Fyfe, M. C. T.; Stoddart, J. F. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 393-401.
27. (a) Balzani, V.; Moggi, L.; Scandola, F. In Supramolecular Photochemistry; Balzani, V., Ed.; Reidel: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1987; pp 1-28.
28. (b) Molecular Electronic Devices; Carter, F. L., Siatkowski, R. E., Wohltjen, H., Eds.; North-Holland: Amsterdam, 1988.
29. (c) Lehn, J.-M. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1990, 29, 1304-1319.
30. (d) Balzani, V.; Scandola, F. Supramolecular Photochemistry, Horwood: Chichester, 1991; Chapter 12.
31. (e) Feringa, B. L.; Wolter, J. F.; de Lange, B. Tetrahedron 1992, 49, 8267-8309.
32. (f) Balzani, V.; Scandola, F. In Comprehensive Supramolecular Chemistry; Reinhoudt, D. N., Ed.; Pergamon Press: Oxford, 1996; Vol. 10, pp 687-746.
33. (g) Benniston, A. C. Chem. Soc. Rev. 1996, 25, 427-435.
34. (h) de Silva, A. P.; Gunaratne, H. Q. N.; Gunnlaugsson, T.; Huxley, A. J. M.; McCoy, C. P.; Rademacher, J. T.; Rice, T. E. Chem. Rev. 1997, 97, 1515-1566.
35. For some publications on molecular-level machine-type systems that do not involve pseudorotaxanes, rotaxanes, or catenanes, see: (a) Iwamura, H.; Mislow, K. Acc. Chem. Res. 1988, 21, 175-182. (b) Mislow, K. Chemtracts - Org. Chem. 1989, 2, 151-174. (c) Kelly, T. R.; Bowyer, M. C.; Bhaskar, K. V.; Bebbington, D.; Gracia, A.; Lang, F.; Kim, M. H.; Jette, M. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 3657-3658. (d) Bedard, T. C.; Moore, J. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 117, 10662-10671. (e) Canevet, C.; Libman, J.; Shanzer, A. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 2657-2660. (f) de Santis, G.; Fabbrizzi, L.; Iacopino, D.; Pallavicini, P.; Perotti, A.; Poggi, A. Inorg. Chem. 1997, 36, 827-832. (g) Willner, I. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 347-356. (h) Ikeda, A.; Tsudera, T.; Shinkai, S. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 3568-3574. (i) Kelly, T. R.; Tellita, I.; Sestelo, J. P. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 1866-1868. (j) Deans, R.; Niemz, A.; Breinlinger, E. C.; Rotello, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 10863-10864. (k) Stevens, A. N.; Richards, C. J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 30, 7805-7808. (l) Malpass, J. R.; Sun, G.; Fawcett, J.; Wartener, R. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 3083-3086.
36. For some publications on molecular-level machine-type systems that do not involve pseudorotaxanes, rotaxanes, or catenanes, see: (a) Iwamura, H.; Mislow, K. Acc. Chem. Res. 1988, 21, 175-182. (b) Mislow, K. Chemtracts - Org. Chem. 1989, 2, 151-174. (c) Kelly, T. R.; Bowyer, M. C.; Bhaskar, K. V.; Bebbington, D.; Gracia, A.; Lang, F.; Kim, M. H.; Jette, M. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 3657-3658. (d) Bedard, T. C.; Moore, J. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 117, 10662-10671. (e) Canevet, C.; Libman, J.; Shanzer, A. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 2657-2660. (f) de Santis, G.; Fabbrizzi, L.; Iacopino, D.; Pallavicini, P.; Perotti, A.; Poggi, A. Inorg. Chem. 1997, 36, 827-832. (g) Willner, I. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 347-356. (h) Ikeda, A.; Tsudera, T.; Shinkai, S. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 3568-3574. (i) Kelly, T. R.; Tellita, I.; Sestelo, J. P. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 1866-1868. (j) Deans, R.; Niemz, A.; Breinlinger, E. C.; Rotello, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 10863-10864. (k) Stevens, A. N.; Richards, C. J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 30, 7805-7808. (l) Malpass, J. R.; Sun, G.; Fawcett, J.; Wartener, R. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 3083-3086.
37. For some publications on molecular-level machine-type systems that do not involve pseudorotaxanes, rotaxanes, or catenanes, see: (a) Iwamura, H.; Mislow, K. Acc. Chem. Res. 1988, 21, 175-182. (b) Mislow, K. Chemtracts - Org. Chem. 1989, 2, 151-174. (c) Kelly, T. R.; Bowyer, M. C.; Bhaskar, K. V.; Bebbington, D.; Gracia, A.; Lang, F.; Kim, M. H.; Jette, M. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 3657-3658. (d) Bedard, T. C.; Moore, J. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 117, 10662-10671. (e) Canevet, C.; Libman, J.; Shanzer, A. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 2657-2660. (f) de Santis, G.; Fabbrizzi, L.; Iacopino, D.; Pallavicini, P.; Perotti, A.; Poggi, A. Inorg. Chem. 1997, 36, 827-832. (g) Willner, I. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 347-356. (h) Ikeda, A.; Tsudera, T.; Shinkai, S. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 3568-3574. (i) Kelly, T. R.; Tellita, I.; Sestelo, J. P. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 1866-1868. (j) Deans, R.; Niemz, A.; Breinlinger, E. C.; Rotello, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 10863-10864. (k) Stevens, A. N.; Richards, C. J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 30, 7805-7808. (l) Malpass, J. R.; Sun, G.; Fawcett, J.; Wartener, R. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 3083-3086.
38. For some publications on molecular-level machine-type systems that do not involve pseudorotaxanes, rotaxanes, or catenanes, see: (a) Iwamura, H.; Mislow, K. Acc. Chem. Res. 1988, 21, 175-182. (b) Mislow, K. Chemtracts - Org. Chem. 1989, 2, 151-174. (c) Kelly, T. R.; Bowyer, M. C.; Bhaskar, K. V.; Bebbington, D.; Gracia, A.; Lang, F.; Kim, M. H.; Jette, M. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 3657-3658. (d) Bedard, T. C.; Moore, J. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 117, 10662-10671. (e) Canevet, C.; Libman, J.; Shanzer, A. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 2657-2660. (f) de Santis, G.; Fabbrizzi, L.; Iacopino, D.; Pallavicini, P.; Perotti, A.; Poggi, A. Inorg. Chem. 1997, 36, 827-832. (g) Willner, I. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 347-356. (h) Ikeda, A.; Tsudera, T.; Shinkai, S. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 3568-3574. (i) Kelly, T. R.; Tellita, I.; Sestelo, J. P. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 1866-1868. (j) Deans, R.; Niemz, A.; Breinlinger, E. C.; Rotello, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 10863-10864. (k) Stevens, A. N.; Richards, C. J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 30, 7805-7808. (l) Malpass, J. R.; Sun, G.; Fawcett, J.; Wartener, R. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 3083-3086.
39. For some publications on molecular-level machine-type systems that do not involve pseudorotaxanes, rotaxanes, or catenanes, see: (a) Iwamura, H.; Mislow, K. Acc. Chem. Res. 1988, 21, 175-182. (b) Mislow, K. Chemtracts - Org. Chem. 1989, 2, 151-174. (c) Kelly, T. R.; Bowyer, M. C.; Bhaskar, K. V.; Bebbington, D.; Gracia, A.; Lang, F.; Kim, M. H.; Jette, M. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 3657-3658. (d) Bedard, T. C.; Moore, J. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 117, 10662-10671. (e) Canevet, C.; Libman, J.; Shanzer, A. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 2657-2660. (f) de Santis, G.; Fabbrizzi, L.; Iacopino, D.; Pallavicini, P.; Perotti, A.; Poggi, A. Inorg. Chem. 1997, 36, 827-832. (g) Willner, I. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 347-356. (h) Ikeda, A.; Tsudera, T.; Shinkai, S. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 3568-3574. (i) Kelly, T. R.; Tellita, I.; Sestelo, J. P. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 1866-1868. (j) Deans, R.; Niemz, A.; Breinlinger, E. C.; Rotello, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 10863-10864. (k) Stevens, A. N.; Richards, C. J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 30, 7805-7808. (l) Malpass, J. R.; Sun, G.; Fawcett, J.; Wartener, R. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 3083-3086.
40. For some publications on molecular-level machine-type systems that do not involve pseudorotaxanes, rotaxanes, or catenanes, see: (a) Iwamura, H.; Mislow, K. Acc. Chem. Res. 1988, 21, 175-182. (b) Mislow, K. Chemtracts - Org. Chem. 1989, 2, 151-174. (c) Kelly, T. R.; Bowyer, M. C.; Bhaskar, K. V.; Bebbington, D.; Gracia, A.; Lang, F.; Kim, M. H.; Jette, M. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 3657-3658. (d) Bedard, T. C.; Moore, J. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 117, 10662-10671. (e) Canevet, C.; Libman, J.; Shanzer, A. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 2657-2660. (f) de Santis, G.; Fabbrizzi, L.; Iacopino, D.; Pallavicini, P.; Perotti, A.; Poggi, A. Inorg. Chem. 1997, 36, 827-832. (g) Willner, I. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 347-356. (h) Ikeda, A.; Tsudera, T.; Shinkai, S. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 3568-3574. (i) Kelly, T. R.; Tellita, I.; Sestelo, J. P. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 1866-1868. (j) Deans, R.; Niemz, A.; Breinlinger, E. C.; Rotello, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 10863-10864. (k) Stevens, A. N.; Richards, C. J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 30, 7805-7808. (l) Malpass, J. R.; Sun, G.; Fawcett, J.; Wartener, R. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 3083-3086.
41. For some publications on molecular-level machine-type systems that do not involve pseudorotaxanes, rotaxanes, or catenanes, see: (a) Iwamura, H.; Mislow, K. Acc. Chem. Res. 1988, 21, 175-182. (b) Mislow, K. Chemtracts - Org. Chem. 1989, 2, 151-174. (c) Kelly, T. R.; Bowyer, M. C.; Bhaskar, K. V.; Bebbington, D.; Gracia, A.; Lang, F.; Kim, M. H.; Jette, M. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 3657-3658. (d) Bedard, T. C.; Moore, J. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 117, 10662-10671. (e) Canevet, C.; Libman, J.; Shanzer, A. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 2657-2660. (f) de Santis, G.; Fabbrizzi, L.; Iacopino, D.; Pallavicini, P.; Perotti, A.; Poggi, A. Inorg. Chem. 1997, 36, 827-832. (g) Willner, I. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 347-356. (h) Ikeda, A.; Tsudera, T.; Shinkai, S. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 3568-3574. (i) Kelly, T. R.; Tellita, I.; Sestelo, J. P. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 1866-1868. (j) Deans, R.; Niemz, A.; Breinlinger, E. C.; Rotello, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 10863-10864. (k) Stevens, A. N.; Richards, C. J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 30, 7805-7808. (l) Malpass, J. R.; Sun, G.; Fawcett, J.; Wartener, R. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 3083-3086.
42. For some publications on molecular-level machine-type systems that do not involve pseudorotaxanes, rotaxanes, or catenanes, see: (a) Iwamura, H.; Mislow, K. Acc. Chem. Res. 1988, 21, 175-182. (b) Mislow, K. Chemtracts - Org. Chem. 1989, 2, 151-174. (c) Kelly, T. R.; Bowyer, M. C.; Bhaskar, K. V.; Bebbington, D.; Gracia, A.; Lang, F.; Kim, M. H.; Jette, M. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 3657-3658. (d) Bedard, T. C.; Moore, J. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 117, 10662-10671. (e) Canevet, C.; Libman, J.; Shanzer, A. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 2657-2660. (f) de Santis, G.; Fabbrizzi, L.; Iacopino, D.; Pallavicini, P.; Perotti, A.; Poggi, A. Inorg. Chem. 1997, 36, 827-832. (g) Willner, I. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 347-356. (h) Ikeda, A.; Tsudera, T.; Shinkai, S. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 3568-3574. (i) Kelly, T. R.; Tellita, I.; Sestelo, J. P. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 1866-1868. (j) Deans, R.; Niemz, A.; Breinlinger, E. C.; Rotello, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 10863-10864. (k) Stevens, A. N.; Richards, C. J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 30, 7805-7808. (l) Malpass, J. R.; Sun, G.; Fawcett, J.; Wartener, R. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 3083-3086.
43. For some publications on molecular-level machine-type systems that do not involve pseudorotaxanes, rotaxanes, or catenanes, see: (a) Iwamura, H.; Mislow, K. Acc. Chem. Res. 1988, 21, 175-182. (b) Mislow, K. Chemtracts - Org. Chem. 1989, 2, 151-174. (c) Kelly, T. R.; Bowyer, M. C.; Bhaskar, K. V.; Bebbington, D.; Gracia, A.; Lang, F.; Kim, M. H.; Jette, M. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 3657-3658. (d) Bedard, T. C.; Moore, J. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 117, 10662-10671. (e) Canevet, C.; Libman, J.; Shanzer, A. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 2657-2660. (f) de Santis, G.; Fabbrizzi, L.; Iacopino, D.; Pallavicini, P.; Perotti, A.; Poggi, A. Inorg. Chem. 1997, 36, 827-832. (g) Willner, I. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 347-356. (h) Ikeda, A.; Tsudera, T.; Shinkai, S. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 3568-3574. (i) Kelly, T. R.; Tellita, I.; Sestelo, J. P. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 1866-1868. (j) Deans, R.; Niemz, A.; Breinlinger, E. C.; Rotello, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 10863-10864. (k) Stevens, A. N.; Richards, C. J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 30, 7805-7808. (l) Malpass, J. R.; Sun, G.; Fawcett, J.; Wartener, R. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 3083-3086.
44. For some publications on molecular-level machine-type systems that do not involve pseudorotaxanes, rotaxanes, or catenanes, see: (a) Iwamura, H.; Mislow, K. Acc. Chem. Res. 1988, 21, 175-182. (b) Mislow, K. Chemtracts - Org. Chem. 1989, 2, 151-174. (c) Kelly, T. R.; Bowyer, M. C.; Bhaskar, K. V.; Bebbington, D.; Gracia, A.; Lang, F.; Kim, M. H.; Jette, M. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 3657-3658. (d) Bedard, T. C.; Moore, J. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 117, 10662-10671. (e) Canevet, C.; Libman, J.; Shanzer, A. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 2657-2660. (f) de Santis, G.; Fabbrizzi, L.; Iacopino, D.; Pallavicini, P.; Perotti, A.; Poggi, A. Inorg. Chem. 1997, 36, 827-832. (g) Willner, I. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 347-356. (h) Ikeda, A.; Tsudera, T.; Shinkai, S. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 3568-3574. (i) Kelly, T. R.; Tellita, I.; Sestelo, J. P. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 1866-1868. (j) Deans, R.; Niemz, A.; Breinlinger, E. C.; Rotello, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 10863-10864. (k) Stevens, A. N.; Richards, C. J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 30, 7805-7808. (l) Malpass, J. R.; Sun, G.; Fawcett, J.; Wartener, R. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 3083-3086.
45. For some publications on molecular-level machine-type systems that do not involve pseudorotaxanes, rotaxanes, or catenanes, see: (a) Iwamura, H.; Mislow, K. Acc. Chem. Res. 1988, 21, 175-182. (b) Mislow, K. Chemtracts - Org. Chem. 1989, 2, 151-174. (c) Kelly, T. R.; Bowyer, M. C.; Bhaskar, K. V.; Bebbington, D.; Gracia, A.; Lang, F.; Kim, M. H.; Jette, M. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 3657-3658. (d) Bedard, T. C.; Moore, J. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 117, 10662-10671. (e) Canevet, C.; Libman, J.; Shanzer, A. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 2657-2660. (f) de Santis, G.; Fabbrizzi, L.; Iacopino, D.; Pallavicini, P.; Perotti, A.; Poggi, A. Inorg. Chem. 1997, 36, 827-832. (g) Willner, I. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 347-356. (h) Ikeda, A.; Tsudera, T.; Shinkai, S. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 3568-3574. (i) Kelly, T. R.; Tellita, I.; Sestelo, J. P. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 1866-1868. (j) Deans, R.; Niemz, A.; Breinlinger, E. C.; Rotello, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 10863-10864. (k) Stevens, A. N.; Richards, C. J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 30, 7805-7808. (l) Malpass, J. R.; Sun, G.; Fawcett, J.; Wartener, R. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 3083-3086.
46. For some publications on molecular-level machine-type systems that do not involve pseudorotaxanes, rotaxanes, or catenanes, see: (a) Iwamura, H.; Mislow, K. Acc. Chem. Res. 1988, 21, 175-182. (b) Mislow, K. Chemtracts - Org. Chem. 1989, 2, 151-174. (c) Kelly, T. R.; Bowyer, M. C.; Bhaskar, K. V.; Bebbington, D.; Gracia, A.; Lang, F.; Kim, M. H.; Jette, M. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 3657-3658. (d) Bedard, T. C.; Moore, J. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 117, 10662-10671. (e) Canevet, C.; Libman, J.; Shanzer, A. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 2657-2660. (f) de Santis, G.; Fabbrizzi, L.; Iacopino, D.; Pallavicini, P.; Perotti, A.; Poggi, A. Inorg. Chem. 1997, 36, 827-832. (g) Willner, I. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 347-356. (h) Ikeda, A.; Tsudera, T.; Shinkai, S. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 3568-3574. (i) Kelly, T. R.; Tellita, I.; Sestelo, J. P. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 1866-1868. (j) Deans, R.; Niemz, A.; Breinlinger, E. C.; Rotello, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 10863-10864. (k) Stevens, A. N.; Richards, C. J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 30, 7805-7808. (l) Malpass, J. R.; Sun, G.; Fawcett, J.; Wartener, R. N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 3083-3086.
47. (a) Odell, B.; Reddington, M. V.; Slawin, A. M. Z.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Williams, D. J. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1988, 27, 1550-1553.
48. (b) Amabilino, D. B.; Anelli, P. L.; Ashton, P. R.; Brown, G. R.; Córdova, E.; Godínez, L. A.; Hayes, W.; Kaifer, A. E.; Philp, D.; Slawin, A. M. Z.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Tolley, M. S.; Williams, D. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 11142-11170.
49. (a) Ashton, P. R.; Iqbal, S.; Stoddart, J. F.; Tinker, N. D. Chem. Commun. 1996, 479-480.
50. (b) Asakawa, M.; Iqbal, S.; Stoddart, J. F.; Tinker, N. D. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 976-978.
51. (c) Asakawa, M. Ashton, P. R.; Iqbal, S.; Quick, A.; Stoddart, J. F.; Tinker, N. D.; White, A. J. P.; Williams, D. J. Isr. J. Chem. 1996, 36, 329-340.
52. Ballardini, R.; Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Gandolfi, M. T.; Langford, S. J.; Menzer, S.; Prodi, L.; Stoddart, J. F.; Venturi, M.; Williams, D. J. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 978-981.
53. (a) Kolchinski, A. G.; Busch, D. H.; Alcock, N. W. J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. 1995, 1289-1291.
54. (b) Ashton, P. R.; Campbell, P. J.; Chrystal, E. J. T.; Glink, P. T.; Menzer, S.; Philp, D.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Tasker, P. A.; White, A. J. P.; Williams, D. J. Chem. Eur. J. 1996, 2, 709-728.
55. (c) Glink, P. T.; Schiavo, C.; Stoddart, J. P.; Williams, D. J. Chem. Commun. 1996, 1483-1490.
56. Ashton, P. R.; Ballardini, R.; Balzani, V.; Gómez-López, M.; Lawrence, S. E.; Martínez-Díaz, M.-V.; Montalti, M.; Piersanti, A.; Prodi, L.; Stoddart, J. F.; Williams, D. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 10641-10651.
57. Montalti, M.; Ballardini, R.; Prodi, L.; Balzani, V. Chem. Commun. 1996, 2011-2012.
58. Ballardini, R.; Balzani, V.; Gandolfi, M. T.; Prodi, L.; Venturi, M.; Philp, D.; Ricketts, H. G.; Stoddart, J. F. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1993, 32, 1301-1303.
59. Ashton, P. R.; Ballardini, R.; Balzani, V.; Boyd, S. E.; Credi, A.; Gandolfi, M. T.; Gómez-López, M.; Iqbal, S.; Philp, D.; Preece, J. A.; Prodi, L.; Ricketts, H. G.; Stoddart, J. F.; Tolley, M. S.; White, A. J. P.; Williams, D. J. Chem. Eur. J. 1997, 3, 152-170.
60. For some additional electrochemically induced switching systems involving pseudorotaxanes, see: (a) Collin, J.-P.; Gavina, R.; Sauvage, J.-P. Chem. Commun. 1996, 2005-2006. (b) Mirzoian, A.; Kaifer, A. E. Chem. Eur. J. 1997, 3, 1052-1058.
61. For some additional electrochemically induced switching systems involving pseudorotaxanes, see: (a) Collin, J.-P.; Gavina, R.; Sauvage, J.-P. Chem. Commun. 1996, 2005-2006. (b) Mirzoian, A.; Kaifer, A. E. Chem. Eur. J. 1997, 3, 1052-1058.
62. Anelli, P.-L.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1991, 113, 5131-5133.
63. (a) Ashton, P. R.; Bissell, R. A.; Spencer, N.; Tolley, M. S. Synlett 1992, 914-918.
64. (b) Ashton, P. R.; Bissell, R. A.; Gorsky, R.; Philp, D.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Tolley, M. S.; Synlett 1992, 919-922.
65. (c) Ashton, P. R.; Bissell, R. A.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Tolley, M. S. Synlett 1992, 923-926.
66. (d) Córdova, E.; Bissell, R. A.; Spencer, N.; Ashton, P. R.; Stoddart, J. F.; Kaifer, A. E. J. Org. Chem. 1993, 58, 6550-6552.
67. (e) Anelli, P.-L.; Asakawa, M.; Ashton, P. R.; Bissell, R. A.; Clavier, G.; Górski, R.; Kaifer, A. E.; Langford, S. J.; Mattersteig, G.; Menzer, S.; Philp, D.; Slawin, A. M. Z.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Tolley, M. S.; Williams, D. J. Chem. Eur. J. 1997, 3, 1113-1135.
68. For other examples of controllable molecular shuttles, see: (a) Benniston, A. C.; Harriman, A.; Lynch, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 5275-5291. (b) Collin, J.-P.; Gavina, P.; Sauvage, J.-P. New J. Chem. 1997, 21, 525-528. (c) Murakami, H.; Kawabuchi, A.; Kotoo, K.; Kunitake, M.; Nakashima, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 7605-7606. (d) Lane, A. S.; Leigh, D. A.; Murphy, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 11092-11093.
69. For other examples of controllable molecular shuttles, see: (a) Benniston, A. C.; Harriman, A.; Lynch, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 5275-5291. (b) Collin, J.-P.; Gavina, P.; Sauvage, J.-P. New J. Chem. 1997, 21, 525-528. (c) Murakami, H.; Kawabuchi, A.; Kotoo, K.; Kunitake, M.; Nakashima, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 7605-7606. (d) Lane, A. S.; Leigh, D. A.; Murphy, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 11092-11093.
70. For other examples of controllable molecular shuttles, see: (a) Benniston, A. C.; Harriman, A.; Lynch, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 5275-5291. (b) Collin, J.-P.; Gavina, P.; Sauvage, J.-P. New J. Chem. 1997, 21, 525-528. (c) Murakami, H.; Kawabuchi, A.; Kotoo, K.; Kunitake, M.; Nakashima, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 7605-7606. (d) Lane, A. S.; Leigh, D. A.; Murphy, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 11092-11093.
71. For other examples of controllable molecular shuttles, see: (a) Benniston, A. C.; Harriman, A.; Lynch, V. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 5275-5291. (b) Collin, J.-P.; Gavina, P.; Sauvage, J.-P. New J. Chem. 1997, 21, 525-528. (c) Murakami, H.; Kawabuchi, A.; Kotoo, K.; Kunitake, M.; Nakashima, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 7605-7606. (d) Lane, A. S.; Leigh, D. A.; Murphy, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 11092-11093.
72. Bissell, R. A.; Córdova, E.; Kaifer, A. E.; Stoddart, J. F. Nature (London) 1994, 369, 133-137.
73. (a) Schul, G.; Rissler, K.; Fritz, H.; Vetter, W. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1981, 20, 187-189.
74. (b) Amabilino, D. B.; Ashton, P. R.; Boyd, S. E.; Gómez-López, M.; Hayes, W.; Stoddart, J. F. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 3062-3075.
75. Ashton, P. R.; Langford, S. J.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; White, A. J. P.; Williams, D. J. Chem. Commun. 1996, 1386-1388.
76. Martínez-Díaz, M.-V.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1997, 36, 1904-1907.
77. (a) Ashton, P. R.; Goodnow, T. T.; Kaifer, A. E.; Reddington, M. V.; Slawin, A. M. Z.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Vicent, C.; Williams, D. J. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1989, 28, 1396-1399.
78. (b) Anelli, P.-L.; Ashton, P. R.; Ballardini, R.; Balzani, V.; Delgado, M.; Gandolfi, M. T.; Goodnow, T. T.; Kaifer, A. E.; Philp, D.; Pietraszkiewicz, M.; Prodi, L.; Reddington, M. V.; Slawin, A. M. Z.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Vicent, C.; Williams, D. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 193-218.
79. (c) Belohradsky, M.; Raymo, F. M.; Stoddart, J. F. Collect. Czech. Chem. Commun. 1997, 62, 527-557.
80. For some other examples of switchable catenanes, see (a) Gunter, M. J.; Hockless, D. C. R.; Johnston, M. R.; Skelton, B. W.; White, A. H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 4810-4823. (b) Bauer, M.; Müller, M.; Müller, U.; Rissanen, K.; Vögtle, F. Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1995, 649-656. (c) Cardenàs, D. J.; Livoreil, A.; Sauvage, J.-P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11980-11981. (d) Leigh, D. A.; Moody, K.; Smart, J. P.; Watson, K. J.; Slawin, A. M. Z. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 306-310.
81. For some other examples of switchable catenanes, see (a) Gunter, M. J.; Hockless, D. C. R.; Johnston, M. R.; Skelton, B. W.; White, A. H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 4810-4823. (b) Bauer, M.; Müller, M.; Müller, U.; Rissanen, K.; Vögtle, F. Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1995, 649-656. (c) Cardenàs, D. J.; Livoreil, A.; Sauvage, J.-P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11980-11981. (d) Leigh, D. A.; Moody, K.; Smart, J. P.; Watson, K. J.; Slawin, A. M. Z. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 306-310.
82. For some other examples of switchable catenanes, see (a) Gunter, M. J.; Hockless, D. C. R.; Johnston, M. R.; Skelton, B. W.; White, A. H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 4810-4823. (b) Bauer, M.; Müller, M.; Müller, U.; Rissanen, K.; Vögtle, F. Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1995, 649-656. (c) Cardenàs, D. J.; Livoreil, A.; Sauvage, J.-P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11980-11981. (d) Leigh, D. A.; Moody, K.; Smart, J. P.; Watson, K. J.; Slawin, A. M. Z. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 306-310.
83. For some other examples of switchable catenanes, see (a) Gunter, M. J.; Hockless, D. C. R.; Johnston, M. R.; Skelton, B. W.; White, A. H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 4810-4823. (b) Bauer, M.; Müller, M.; Müller, U.; Rissanen, K.; Vögtle, F. Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1995, 649-656. (c) Cardenàs, D. J.; Livoreil, A.; Sauvage, J.-P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 11980-11981. (d) Leigh, D. A.; Moody, K.; Smart, J. P.; Watson, K. J.; Slawin, A. M. Z. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1996, 35, 306-310.
84. (a) Ashton, P. R.; Pérez-García, L.; Stoddart, J. F.; White, A. J. P.; Williams, D. J. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 1995, 34, 571-574.
85. (b) Ashton, P. R.; Ballardini, R.; Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Gandolfi, M. T.; Menzer, S.; Pérez-García, L.; Prodi, L.; Stoddart, J. F.; Venturi, M.; White, A. J. P.; Williams, D. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 11171-11197.
86. Asakawa, M.; Ashton, P. R.; Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Hamers, C.; Mattersteig, G.; Montalti, M.; Shipway, A. N.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Tolley, M. S.; Venturi, M.; White, A. J. P.; Williams, D. J. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1998, 37, 333-337.
87. Livoreil, A.; Dietrich-Buchecker, C. O.; Sauvage, J.-P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1994, 116, 9399-9400.
88. Livoreil, A.; Sauvage, J.-P.; Armaroli, N.; Balzani, V.; Flamigni, L.; Ventura, B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 12114-12124.
89. Amabilino, D. B.; Dietrich-Buchecker, C. O.; Livoreil, A.; Pérez-García, L.; Sauvage, J.-P.; Stoddart, J. F. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 178, 3905-3913.
90. For recents reviews on topics related to molecular machines, see: (a) Stoddart, J. F. Chem. Aust. 1992, 59, 576-577. (b) Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanobiology 1994, 3, 149-166. (c) Gómez-López, M.; Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanotechnology 1996, 7, 183-192. (d) Ward, M. D. Chem. Ind. (London) 1997, 640-645. (e) Gakh, A. A.; Sachleben, R. A.; Bryan, J. C. Chemtech 1997 (November), 27, 26-33. (f) Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Scandola, F. Chem. Ind. (Rome) 1997, 79, 751-759. (g) Chambron, J. C.; Sauvage, J.-P. Chem. Eur. J., in press. (h) Sauvage, J.-P. Acc. Chem. Res., in press.
91. For recents reviews on topics related to molecular machines, see: (a) Stoddart, J. F. Chem. Aust. 1992, 59, 576-577. (b) Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanobiology 1994, 3, 149-166. (c) Gómez-López, M.; Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanotechnology 1996, 7, 183-192. (d) Ward, M. D. Chem. Ind. (London) 1997, 640-645. (e) Gakh, A. A.; Sachleben, R. A.; Bryan, J. C. Chemtech 1997 (November), 27, 26-33. (f) Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Scandola, F. Chem. Ind. (Rome) 1997, 79, 751-759. (g) Chambron, J. C.; Sauvage, J.-P. Chem. Eur. J., in press. (h) Sauvage, J.-P. Acc. Chem. Res., in press.
92. For recents reviews on topics related to molecular machines, see: (a) Stoddart, J. F. Chem. Aust. 1992, 59, 576-577. (b) Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanobiology 1994, 3, 149-166. (c) Gómez-López, M.; Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanotechnology 1996, 7, 183-192. (d) Ward, M. D. Chem. Ind. (London) 1997, 640-645. (e) Gakh, A. A.; Sachleben, R. A.; Bryan, J. C. Chemtech 1997 (November), 27, 26-33. (f) Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Scandola, F. Chem. Ind. (Rome) 1997, 79, 751-759. (g) Chambron, J. C.; Sauvage, J.-P. Chem. Eur. J., in press. (h) Sauvage, J.-P. Acc. Chem. Res., in press.
93. For recents reviews on topics related to molecular machines, see: (a) Stoddart, J. F. Chem. Aust. 1992, 59, 576-577. (b) Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanobiology 1994, 3, 149-166. (c) Gómez-López, M.; Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanotechnology 1996, 7, 183-192. (d) Ward, M. D. Chem. Ind. (London) 1997, 640-645. (e) Gakh, A. A.; Sachleben, R. A.; Bryan, J. C. Chemtech 1997 (November), 27, 26-33. (f) Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Scandola, F. Chem. Ind. (Rome) 1997, 79, 751-759. (g) Chambron, J. C.; Sauvage, J.-P. Chem. Eur. J., in press. (h) Sauvage, J.-P. Acc. Chem. Res., in press.
94. For recents reviews on topics related to molecular machines, see: (a) Stoddart, J. F. Chem. Aust. 1992, 59, 576-577. (b) Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanobiology 1994, 3, 149-166. (c) Gómez-López, M.; Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanotechnology 1996, 7, 183-192. (d) Ward, M. D. Chem. Ind. (London) 1997, 640-645. (e) Gakh, A. A.; Sachleben, R. A.; Bryan, J. C. Chemtech 1997 (November), 27, 26-33. (f) Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Scandola, F. Chem. Ind. (Rome) 1997, 79, 751-759. (g) Chambron, J. C.; Sauvage, J.-P. Chem. Eur. J., in press. (h) Sauvage, J.-P. Acc. Chem. Res., in press.
95. For recents reviews on topics related to molecular machines, see: (a) Stoddart, J. F. Chem. Aust. 1992, 59, 576-577. (b) Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanobiology 1994, 3, 149-166. (c) Gómez-López, M.; Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanotechnology 1996, 7, 183-192. (d) Ward, M. D. Chem. Ind. (London) 1997, 640-645. (e) Gakh, A. A.; Sachleben, R. A.; Bryan, J. C. Chemtech 1997 (November), 27, 26-33. (f) Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Scandola, F. Chem. Ind. (Rome) 1997, 79, 751-759. (g) Chambron, J. C.; Sauvage, J.-P. Chem. Eur. J., in press. (h) Sauvage, J.-P. Acc. Chem. Res., in press.
96. For recents reviews on topics related to molecular machines, see: (a) Stoddart, J. F. Chem. Aust. 1992, 59, 576-577. (b) Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanobiology 1994, 3, 149-166. (c) Gómez-López, M.; Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanotechnology 1996, 7, 183-192. (d) Ward, M. D. Chem. Ind. (London) 1997, 640-645. (e) Gakh, A. A.; Sachleben, R. A.; Bryan, J. C. Chemtech 1997 (November), 27, 26-33. (f) Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Scandola, F. Chem. Ind. (Rome) 1997, 79, 751-759. (g) Chambron, J. C.; Sauvage, J.-P. Chem. Eur. J., in press. (h) Sauvage, J.-P. Acc. Chem. Res., in press.
97. For recents reviews on topics related to molecular machines, see: (a) Stoddart, J. F. Chem. Aust. 1992, 59, 576-577. (b) Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanobiology 1994, 3, 149-166. (c) Gómez-López, M.; Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Nanotechnology 1996, 7, 183-192. (d) Ward, M. D. Chem. Ind. (London) 1997, 640-645. (e) Gakh, A. A.; Sachleben, R. A.; Bryan, J. C. Chemtech 1997 (November), 27, 26-33. (f) Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Scandola, F. Chem. Ind. (Rome) 1997, 79, 751-759. (g) Chambron, J. C.; Sauvage, J.-P. Chem. Eur. J., in press. (h) Sauvage, J.-P. Acc. Chem. Res., in press.
98. For the so-called heterosupramolecular chemistry approach, see: Marguerettaz, X.; Redmond, G.; Rao, S. N.; Fitzmaurice, D. Chem. Eur. J. 1996, 2, 420-428.
99. For evidence of being able to build supramolecular nanostructures on surfaces using compounds similar to those described in this Account, see: Laitenberger, P.; Claessens, C. G.; Kuipers, F. M.; Raymo, F. M.; Palmer, R. E.; Stoddart, J. F. Chem. Phys. Lett. 1997, 279, 209-213.
100. Monolayers and Langmuir-Blodgett films can be obtained using complexes and compounds similar to those discussed in this Account. See: (a) Ahuja, R. C.; Caruso, P.-L.; Möbius, D.; Wildburg, G.; Ringsdorf, H.; Philp, D.; Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Langmuir 1993, 9, 1534-1544. (b) Ahuja, R. C.; Caruso, P.-L.; Möbius, D.; Philp, D.; Preece, J. A.; Ringsdorf, H.; Stoddart, J. F.; Wildburg, G. Thin Solid Films 1996, 284/285, 671-677.
101. Monolayers and Langmuir-Blodgett films can be obtained using complexes and compounds similar to those discussed in this Account. See: (a) Ahuja, R. C.; Caruso, P.-L.; Möbius, D.; Wildburg, G.; Ringsdorf, H.; Philp, D.; Preece, J. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Langmuir 1993, 9, 1534-1544. (b) Ahuja, R. C.; Caruso, P.-L.; Möbius, D.; Philp, D.; Preece, J. A.; Ringsdorf, H.; Stoddart, J. F.; Wildburg, G. Thin Solid Films 1996, 284/285, 671-677.
102. See, for example: (a) Finer, J. T.; Simmons, R. M.; Spudich, J. A. Nature (London) 1994, 368, 113-119. (b) Yin, H.; Wang, M. D.; Svodboda, K.; Landick, R.; Block, S. M.; Gelles, J. Science (Washington, D.C.) 1995, 270, 1653-1657. (c) Noji, H.; Yasuda, R.; Yoshida, M.; Kinosita, K., Ir. Nature (London) 1997, 386, 299-302. (d) Howard, J. Nature (London) 1997, 389, 561-567.
103. See, for example: (a) Finer, J. T.; Simmons, R. M.; Spudich, J. A. Nature (London) 1994, 368, 113-119. (b) Yin, H.; Wang, M. D.; Svodboda, K.; Landick, R.; Block, S. M.; Gelles, J. Science (Washington, D.C.) 1995, 270, 1653-1657. (c) Noji, H.; Yasuda, R.; Yoshida, M.; Kinosita, K., Ir. Nature (London) 1997, 386, 299-302. (d) Howard, J. Nature (London) 1997, 389, 561-567.
104. See, for example: (a) Finer, J. T.; Simmons, R. M.; Spudich, J. A. Nature (London) 1994, 368, 113-119. (b) Yin, H.; Wang, M. D.; Svodboda, K.; Landick, R.; Block, S. M.; Gelles, J. Science (Washington, D.C.) 1995, 270, 1653-1657. (c) Noji, H.; Yasuda, R.; Yoshida, M.; Kinosita, K., Ir. Nature (London) 1997, 386, 299-302. (d) Howard, J. Nature (London) 1997, 389, 561-567.
105. See, for example: (a) Finer, J. T.; Simmons, R. M.; Spudich, J. A. Nature (London) 1994, 368, 113-119. (b) Yin, H.; Wang, M. D.; Svodboda, K.; Landick, R.; Block, S. M.; Gelles, J. Science (Washington, D.C.) 1995, 270, 1653-1657. (c) Noji, H.; Yasuda, R.; Yoshida, M.; Kinosita, K., Ir. Nature (London) 1997, 386, 299-302. (d) Howard, J. Nature (London) 1997, 389, 561-567.
106. Some chemical systems, including pseudorotaxanes, have been found to perform complex logic operations. See: (a) de Silva, A. P.; Gunaratne, H. Q. N.; McCoy, C. P. Nature (London) 1993, 364, 42-44. (b) Credi, A.; Balzani, V.; Langford, S. J.; Stoddart, J. F. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 2679-2681. (c) de Silva, A. P.; Gunaratne, H. Q. N.; McCoy, C. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 7891-7892. (d) Asakawa, M.; Ashton, P. R.; Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Mattersteig, G.; Matthews, O. A.; Montalti, M.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Venturi, M. Chem. Eur. J. 1997, 3, 1992-1996.
107. Some chemical systems, including pseudorotaxanes, have been found to perform complex logic operations. See: (a) de Silva, A. P.; Gunaratne, H. Q. N.; McCoy, C. P. Nature (London) 1993, 364, 42-44. (b) Credi, A.; Balzani, V.; Langford, S. J.; Stoddart, J. F. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 2679-2681. (c) de Silva, A. P.; Gunaratne, H. Q. N.; McCoy, C. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 7891-7892. (d) Asakawa, M.; Ashton, P. R.; Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Mattersteig, G.; Matthews, O. A.; Montalti, M.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Venturi, M. Chem. Eur. J. 1997, 3, 1992-1996.
108. Some chemical systems, including pseudorotaxanes, have been found to perform complex logic operations. See: (a) de Silva, A. P.; Gunaratne, H. Q. N.; McCoy, C. P. Nature (London) 1993, 364, 42-44. (b) Credi, A.; Balzani, V.; Langford, S. J.; Stoddart, J. F. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 2679-2681. (c) de Silva, A. P.; Gunaratne, H. Q. N.; McCoy, C. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 7891-7892. (d) Asakawa, M.; Ashton, P. R.; Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Mattersteig, G.; Matthews, O. A.; Montalti, M.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Venturi, M. Chem. Eur. J. 1997, 3, 1992-1996.
109. Some chemical systems, including pseudorotaxanes, have been found to perform complex logic operations. See: (a) de Silva, A. P.; Gunaratne, H. Q. N.; McCoy, C. P. Nature (London) 1993, 364, 42-44. (b) Credi, A.; Balzani, V.; Langford, S. J.; Stoddart, J. F. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 2679-2681. (c) de Silva, A. P.; Gunaratne, H. Q. N.; McCoy, C. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 7891-7892. (d) Asakawa, M.; Ashton, P. R.; Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Mattersteig, G.; Matthews, O. A.; Montalti, M.; Spencer, N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Venturi, M. Chem. Eur. J. 1997, 3, 1992-1996.
110. Opportunities in Chemistry, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press: Washington, DC, 1985; p 220.