Turkey, Europe, and Paradoxes of Identity: Perspectives on the International Context of Democratization

Mediterranean Quarterly

Volumn 10, Issue 3, 1999, Pages

  Onis, Ziya ^a  

^a BOGAZICI UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

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EID: 0347155245     PISSN: 10474552     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (43)

1. A key source on the constituents of European identity from a broad historical perspective is G. Therborn, European Modernity and Beyond: The Trajectory of European Societies, 1945-2000 (London: Sage, 1995). A valuable discussion is provided by E. Moxon-Browne, "Eastern and Western Europe: Towards a New European Identity?" Contemporary Politics 3, no. 1 (1997): 27-34. Also relevant in the present context are P. Taylor, The European Union in the 1990s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); H. Miall, Shaping the New Europe (London: Pinter, 1993); and P. M. Lützeler, ed., Europe after Maastricht: American and European Perspectives (Oxford: Berghahn, 1994).
2. A key source on the constituents of European identity from a broad historical perspective is G. Therborn, European Modernity and Beyond: The Trajectory of European Societies, 1945-2000 (London: Sage, 1995). A valuable discussion is provided by E. Moxon-Browne, "Eastern and Western Europe: Towards a New European Identity?" Contemporary Politics 3, no. 1 (1997): 27-34. Also relevant in the present context are P. Taylor, The European Union in the 1990s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); H. Miall, Shaping the New Europe (London: Pinter, 1993); and P. M. Lützeler, ed., Europe after Maastricht: American and European Perspectives (Oxford: Berghahn, 1994).
3. A key source on the constituents of European identity from a broad historical perspective is G. Therborn, European Modernity and Beyond: The Trajectory of European Societies, 1945-2000 (London: Sage, 1995). A valuable discussion is provided by E. Moxon-Browne, "Eastern and Western Europe: Towards a New European Identity?" Contemporary Politics 3, no. 1 (1997): 27-34. Also relevant in the present context are P. Taylor, The European Union in the 1990s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); H. Miall, Shaping the New Europe (London: Pinter, 1993); and P. M. Lützeler, ed., Europe after Maastricht: American and European Perspectives (Oxford: Berghahn, 1994).
4. A key source on the constituents of European identity from a broad historical perspective is G. Therborn, European Modernity and Beyond: The Trajectory of European Societies, 1945-2000 (London: Sage, 1995). A valuable discussion is provided by E. Moxon-Browne, "Eastern and Western Europe: Towards a New European Identity?" Contemporary Politics 3, no. 1 (1997): 27-34. Also relevant in the present context are P. Taylor, The European Union in the 1990s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); H. Miall, Shaping the New Europe (London: Pinter, 1993); and P. M. Lützeler, ed., Europe after Maastricht: American and European Perspectives (Oxford: Berghahn, 1994).
5. A key source on the constituents of European identity from a broad historical perspective is G. Therborn, European Modernity and Beyond: The Trajectory of European Societies, 1945-2000 (London: Sage, 1995). A valuable discussion is provided by E. Moxon-Browne, "Eastern and Western Europe: Towards a New European Identity?" Contemporary Politics 3, no. 1 (1997): 27-34. Also relevant in the present context are P. Taylor, The European Union in the 1990s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); H. Miall, Shaping the New Europe (London: Pinter, 1993); and P. M. Lützeler, ed., Europe after Maastricht: American and European Perspectives (Oxford: Berghahn, 1994).
6. See F. Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the. Middle East (London: I. B. Tauris, 1996). A possible justification for considering Islam or the Middle East as an important secondary other in the present context is that neither poses an economic or military threat, in any fundamental sense, to contemporary Europe.
7. J. Santer, "The European Union's External Relations in the 21st Century: Political Dwarf or World Actor?" Bologna Center Occasional Paper, no. 4 (1998).
8. For a criticism of the economic limitations of the social Europe project from a U.S. perspective focusing on overregulation, rigidities in the labor market, and the problems created by a lopsided age structure, see D. R. Gress, "Agenda 2000: The Weak Heart of Postmodern Europe," Orbis (winter 1997): 59-68.
9. Samuel P. Huntington, "The Clash of Civilizations?" Foreign Affairs 72, no. 3 (1993): 22-49.
10. See European Commission, "Agenda 2000: For a Stronger and Wider Union," Bulletin of the European Union, no. 5 (Brussels: 1997).
11. For a balanced assessment of Germany in the context of European integration, see P. Katzenstein, "United Germany in an Integrating Europe," Current History (March 1997): 116-23. On Germany's close relations with Central European countries and with Poland, in particular, see R. Freudenstein, "Poland, Germany and the EU," International Affairs 74, no. 1 (1998): 41-54.
12. For a balanced assessment of Germany in the context of European integration, see P. Katzenstein, "United Germany in an Integrating Europe," Current History (March 1997): 116-23. On Germany's close relations with Central European countries and with Poland, in particular, see R. Freudenstein, "Poland, Germany and the EU," International Affairs 74, no. 1 (1998): 41-54.
13. For documentation on the explicit civilizational perspective underlying the Christian Democrat position on EU-Turkey relations, refer to the pronouncements of Wilfried Martens, a leading Christian Democrat in the European Parliament, in Economist, 15 March 1997, 31. Similar pronouncements were also frequently made by former German chancellor Helmut Kohl.
14. The definite limits on the possibility of expanding social and regional funds in the case of the CEECs is explored and documented in M. Mallett, "National and Regional Development in Central and Eastern Europe: Implications for EU Structural Assistance," European Commission, Directorate General for Economic, and Financial Affairs, Economic Papers, no. 120 (1997).
15. On the emergence of a multilayered Europe, with different speeds of integration, see N. Nugent, "The Deepening and Widening of the European Community: Recent Evolution, Maastricht and Beyond," Journal of Common Market Studies 30, no. 3 (1992); G. Timmins, "European Union Policy towards East-Central Europe: The Prospects for Enlargement," Contemporary Politics 3, no. 1 (1997): 35-53; and M. Jovanovic, "Eastern Enlargement and the European Union," Review of International Affairs 49, no. 1066: 18-34.
16. On the emergence of a multilayered Europe, with different speeds of integration, see N. Nugent, "The Deepening and Widening of the European Community: Recent Evolution, Maastricht and Beyond," Journal of Common Market Studies 30, no. 3 (1992); G. Timmins, "European Union Policy towards East-Central Europe: The Prospects for Enlargement," Contemporary Politics 3, no. 1 (1997): 35-53; and M. Jovanovic, "Eastern Enlargement and the European Union," Review of International Affairs 49, no. 1066: 18-34.
17. On the emergence of a multilayered Europe, with different speeds of integration, see N. Nugent, "The Deepening and Widening of the European Community: Recent Evolution, Maastricht and Beyond," Journal of Common Market Studies 30, no. 3 (1992); G. Timmins, "European Union Policy towards East-Central Europe: The Prospects for Enlargement," Contemporary Politics 3, no. 1 (1997): 35-53; and M. Jovanovic, "Eastern Enlargement and the European Union," Review of International Affairs 49, no. 1066: 18-34.
18. On the importance of the external context for democratic transitions and democratic consolidation, respectively, see G. Pridham, ed., Encouraging Democracy: The International Context of Regime Transition in Southern Europe (Leicester, U.K.: Leicester University Press, 1991); and L. Whitehead, ed., The International Dimensions of Democratization: Europe and the Americas (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
19. On the importance of the external context for democratic transitions and democratic consolidation, respectively, see G. Pridham, ed., Encouraging Democracy: The International Context of Regime Transition in Southern Europe (Leicester, U.K.: Leicester University Press, 1991); and L. Whitehead, ed., The International Dimensions of Democratization: Europe and the Americas (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
20. For evidence on the process of democratization in Central and Eastern Europe, see M. Kaldor and I. Vejvoda, "Democratization in Central and Eastern European Countries," International Affairs 73, no. 1 (1997): 59-92. The article summarizes the findings of a major multicountry research project funded by the European Commission. An interesting empirical study demonstrates the much more active role played by the EU in promoting democracy and providing financial resources for this purpose in the case of Poland in comparison with Turkey during the 1990s. See A. Lundgren, "The European Union as a Democracy Promoter," in Civil Society, Democracy and the Muslim World, ed. E. Özdalga and S. Person (Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute, 1997).
21. For evidence on the process of democratization in Central and Eastern Europe, see M. Kaldor and I. Vejvoda, "Democratization in Central and Eastern European Countries," International Affairs 73, no. 1 (1997): 59-92. The article summarizes the findings of a major multicountry research project funded by the European Commission. An interesting empirical study demonstrates the much more active role played by the EU in promoting democracy and providing financial resources for this purpose in the case of Poland in comparison with Turkey during the 1990s. See A. Lundgren, "The European Union as a Democracy Promoter," in Civil Society, Democracy and the Muslim World, ed. E. Özdalga and S. Person (Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute, 1997).
22. For a comprehensive elaboration of the concept of democracy by convergence, see L. Whitehead, "Democracy by Convergence and Southern Europe: A Comparative Politics Perspective," in Encouraging Democracy.
23. Turkey's relations with the EU have generated an extensive literature. For a small sample, see A. Eralp, "Turkey and the European Community: Prospects for a New Relationship," in The Political and Socioeconomic Transformation of Turkey, ed. A. Eralp, M. Tümay, and B. Ye'ilada (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993); M. Müftüler-Baç, Turkey's Relations with a Changing Europe (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997); and W. Hale, "Turkey: A Crucial but Problematic Applicant," in Prospective Europeans: New Members of the European Community, ed. J. Redmond (Hemel Hampstead, U.K.: Harvester and Wheatsheaf, 1994). A valuable collection of essays on various aspects of Turkey-EU relations is A. Eralp, ed., Türkiye ve Avrupa (Turkey and Europe) (Ankara: Ýmge Yaýnevi, 1997).
24. Turkey's relations with the EU have generated an extensive literature. For a small sample, see A. Eralp, "Turkey and the European Community: Prospects for a New Relationship," in The Political and Socioeconomic Transformation of Turkey, ed. A. Eralp, M. Tümay, and B. Ye'ilada (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993); M. Müftüler-Baç, Turkey's Relations with a Changing Europe (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997); and W. Hale, "Turkey: A Crucial but Problematic Applicant," in Prospective Europeans: New Members of the European Community, ed. J. Redmond (Hemel Hampstead, U.K.: Harvester and Wheatsheaf, 1994). A valuable collection of essays on various aspects of Turkey-EU relations is A. Eralp, ed., Türkiye ve Avrupa (Turkey and Europe) (Ankara: Ýmge Yaýnevi, 1997).
25. Turkey's relations with the EU have generated an extensive literature. For a small sample, see A. Eralp, "Turkey and the European Community: Prospects for a New Relationship," in The Political and Socioeconomic Transformation of Turkey, ed. A. Eralp, M. Tümay, and B. Ye'ilada (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993); M. Müftüler-Baç, Turkey's Relations with a Changing Europe (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997); and W. Hale, "Turkey: A Crucial but Problematic Applicant," in Prospective Europeans: New Members of the European Community, ed. J. Redmond (Hemel Hampstead, U.K.: Harvester and Wheatsheaf, 1994). A valuable collection of essays on various aspects of Turkey-EU relations is A. Eralp, ed., Türkiye ve Avrupa (Turkey and Europe) (Ankara: Ýmge Yaýnevi, 1997).
26. Turkey's relations with the EU have generated an extensive literature. For a small sample, see A. Eralp, "Turkey and the European Community: Prospects for a New Relationship," in The Political and Socioeconomic Transformation of Turkey, ed. A. Eralp, M. Tümay, and B. Ye'ilada (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993); M. Müftüler-Baç, Turkey's Relations with a Changing Europe (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997); and W. Hale, "Turkey: A Crucial but Problematic Applicant," in Prospective Europeans: New Members of the European Community, ed. J. Redmond (Hemel Hampstead, U.K.: Harvester and Wheatsheaf, 1994). A valuable collection of essays on various aspects of Turkey-EU relations is A. Eralp, ed., Türkiye ve Avrupa (Turkey and Europe) (Ankara: Ýmge Yaýnevi, 1997).
27. Perhaps the single most important indicator that may be utilized in support of the hypothesis concerning the broad similarity in the economic structures of Turkey and the CEECs is per capita incomes measured at purchasing power parity (PPP). According to the World Bank, World Development Report, 1997 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998), Turkey emerges as the third country among the group of CEECs, excluding Slovenia, with a per capita income at PPP levels measured at 35,580, lagging behind only Hungary and the Czech Republic. Turkey's growth performance also compares very favorably with the CEECs' as a group. The similarities of trade structure and trade relations with those of the EU are also highlighted by a valuable empirical study by S. Togan, "Comparative Study of Central, East European, Baltic and Turkish Economies with a View to Membership of the European Union," Economic Research Forum Working Papers Series, no. 9629 (1996). Two key contrasts may be identified, however, that differentiate Turkey from the broad category of the CEECs. First, it is a large country in terms of population. Second, its population growth is significantly higher than the CEEC averages. Both of these factors render the absorption of Turkey more difficult for the EU from a purely economic point of view.
28. Perhaps the single most important indicator that may be utilized in support of the hypothesis concerning the broad similarity in the economic structures of Turkey and the CEECs is per capita incomes measured at purchasing power parity (PPP). According to the World Bank, World Development Report, 1997 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998), Turkey emerges as the third country among the group of CEECs, excluding Slovenia, with a per capita income at PPP levels measured at 35,580, lagging behind only Hungary and the Czech Republic. Turkey's growth performance also compares very favorably with the CEECs' as a group. The similarities of trade structure and trade relations with those of the EU are also highlighted by a valuable empirical study by S. Togan, "Comparative Study of Central, East European, Baltic and Turkish Economies with a View to Membership of the European Union," Economic Research Forum Working Papers Series, no. 9629 (1996). Two key contrasts may be identified, however, that differentiate Turkey from the broad category of the CEECs. First, it is a large country in terms of population. Second, its population growth is significantly higher than the CEEC averages. Both of these factors render the absorption of Turkey more difficult for the EU from a purely economic point of view.
29. Phare was originally an EU effort called Poland and Hungary: Action for the Restructuring of the Economy (PHARE) and became a word rather than an acronym when it enlarged its scope. On the details of the program and the enormous magnitudes involved, see Mallett.
30. H. Kramer. "The EU-Turkey Customs Union: Economic Integration amidst Political Union," Mediterranean Politics 1, no. 1 (1996): 60-75.
31. For a historical perspective on the favorable role played by the EU in relation to the Turkish democratization process, see A. Karaosmano'lu, "The International Context of Democratic? Transition in Turkey," in Encouraging Democracy. Specifically on the role of the EU in the latest transition the democracy from military rule during the early 1980s, see I. Da'ý, "Democratic Transition in Turkey: The Impact of European Diplomacy," Middle Eastern Studies 32, no. 2 (1996): 124-41.
32. For a historical perspective on the favorable role played by the EU in relation to the Turkish democratization process, see A. Karaosmano'lu, "The International Context of Democratic? Transition in Turkey," in Encouraging Democracy. Specifically on the role of the EU in the latest transition the democracy from military rule during the early 1980s, see I. Da'ý, "Democratic Transition in Turkey: The Impact of European Diplomacy," Middle Eastern Studies 32, no. 2 (1996): 124-41.
33. On the substantive limitations of the emerging democracies in the CEECs, notably with respect to the maltreatment of minority rights, see Kaldor and Vejvoda, 59-82. For a useful comparison of the human rights record of Turkey and the CEECs, see, the report by the Economic Development Foundation (a leading private sector institution in Turkey concerned with promoting relations between Turkey and the European Community), Democracy and Human Rights (Istanbul: Ýktisadi Kalkýnma Vakfý, 1997).
34. On the rise of political Islam in Turkey see, Z. Öni', ''The Political Economy of Islamic Resurgence in Turkey: The Rise of the Welfare Party in Perspective," Third World Quarterly 18, no. 4 (1997): 743-66; H. Cülalp, "The Crisis of Westernization in Turkey: Islamism versus Nationalism," Innovation 8, no. 2 (1995): 175-82; and M. H. Yavuz, "Political Islam and the Welfare (Refah) Party in Turkey," Comparative Politics 30, no. 1 (1997): 63-82. A comprehensive discussion of the Kurdish problem is provided by K. Kiri'çi and C. Winrow, The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-state Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1997). For a useful journalistic account of the recent political developments in Turkey from a historical perspeetive, see N. and H. Pope, Turkey Unveiled: Ataturk and After (London: John Murray, 1997).
35. On the rise of political Islam in Turkey see, Z. Öni', ''The Political Economy of Islamic Resurgence in Turkey: The Rise of the Welfare Party in Perspective," Third World Quarterly 18, no. 4 (1997): 743-66; H. Cülalp, "The Crisis of Westernization in Turkey: Islamism versus Nationalism," Innovation 8, no. 2 (1995): 175-82; and M. H. Yavuz, "Political Islam and the Welfare (Refah) Party in Turkey," Comparative Politics 30, no. 1 (1997): 63-82. A comprehensive discussion of the Kurdish problem is provided by K. Kiri'çi and C. Winrow, The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-state Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1997). For a useful journalistic account of the recent political developments in Turkey from a historical perspeetive, see N. and H. Pope, Turkey Unveiled: Ataturk and After (London: John Murray, 1997).
36. On the rise of political Islam in Turkey see, Z. Öni', ''The Political Economy of Islamic Resurgence in Turkey: The Rise of the Welfare Party in Perspective," Third World Quarterly 18, no. 4 (1997): 743-66; H. Cülalp, "The Crisis of Westernization in Turkey: Islamism versus Nationalism," Innovation 8, no. 2 (1995): 175-82; and M. H. Yavuz, "Political Islam and the Welfare (Refah) Party in Turkey," Comparative Politics 30, no. 1 (1997): 63-82. A comprehensive discussion of the Kurdish problem is provided by K. Kiri'çi and C. Winrow, The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-state Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1997). For a useful journalistic account of the recent political developments in Turkey from a historical perspeetive, see N. and H. Pope, Turkey Unveiled: Ataturk and After (London: John Murray, 1997).
37. On the rise of political Islam in Turkey see, Z. Öni', ''The Political Economy of Islamic Resurgence in Turkey: The Rise of the Welfare Party in Perspective," Third World Quarterly 18, no. 4 (1997): 743-66; H. Cülalp, "The Crisis of Westernization in Turkey: Islamism versus Nationalism," Innovation 8, no. 2 (1995): 175-82; and M. H. Yavuz, "Political Islam and the Welfare (Refah) Party in Turkey," Comparative Politics 30, no. 1 (1997): 63-82. A comprehensive discussion of the Kurdish problem is provided by K. Kiri'çi and C. Winrow, The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-state Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1997). For a useful journalistic account of the recent political developments in Turkey from a historical perspeetive, see N. and H. Pope, Turkey Unveiled: Ataturk and After (London: John Murray, 1997).
38. On the rise of political Islam in Turkey see, Z. Öni', ''The Political Economy of Islamic Resurgence in Turkey: The Rise of the Welfare Party in Perspective," Third World Quarterly 18, no. 4 (1997): 743-66; H. Cülalp, "The Crisis of Westernization in Turkey: Islamism versus Nationalism," Innovation 8, no. 2 (1995): 175-82; and M. H. Yavuz, "Political Islam and the Welfare (Refah) Party in Turkey," Comparative Politics 30, no. 1 (1997): 63-82. A comprehensive discussion of the Kurdish problem is provided by K. Kiri'çi and C. Winrow, The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-state Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1997). For a useful journalistic account of the recent political developments in Turkey from a historical perspeetive, see N. and H. Pope, Turkey Unveiled: Ataturk and After (London: John Murray, 1997).
39. On the strengthening of the political role of the military in Turkey during the post-1980 period, see Ü. Cizre-Sakall ýo'lu, "The Anatomy of the Turkish Military's Political Autonomy." Comparative Politics 29, no. 2 (1997): 151-6. On the reemergence of the military as a major political actor in the most recent period, see B. Lombardi, "Turkey: The Return of the Reluctant Generals?" Political Science Quarterly 112, no. 2 (1997): 191-215.
40. On the strengthening of the political role of the military in Turkey during the post-1980 period, see Ü. Cizre-Sakall ýo'lu, "The Anatomy of the Turkish Military's Political Autonomy." Comparative Politics 29, no. 2 (1997): 151-6. On the reemergence of the military as a major political actor in the most recent period, see B. Lombardi, "Turkey: The Return of the Reluctant Generals?" Political Science Quarterly 112, no. 2 (1997): 191-215.
41. Concerning the recent shift of emphasis of U.S. policy in relation to Turkey involving a more pronounced focus on democracy and human rights, see I. O. Lesser, "In Search of a Post - Cold War Role," Private View 1-2, nos. 4-5 (1997): 90-6. See also Obrad Kesic, "American-Turkish Relations at a Crossroads," Mediterranean Quarterly 6, no. 1 (1995): 97-108.
42. Concerning the recent shift of emphasis of U.S. policy in relation to Turkey involving a more pronounced focus on democracy and human rights, see I. O. Lesser, "In Search of a Post - Cold War Role," Private View 1-2, nos. 4-5 (1997): 90-6. See also Obrad Kesic, "American-Turkish Relations at a Crossroads," Mediterranean Quarterly 6, no. 1 (1995): 97-108.
43. On the recent development of strong economic and military ties between Israel and Turkey, see M. H. Yavuz, "Turkish-Israeli Relations and the Turkish Identity Debate," Journal of Palestine Studies 27, no. 1 (1997): 22-37.