Democratization in central and east European countries

International Affairs

Volumn 73, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 59-82

  Kaldor, Mary ^a   Vejvoda, Ivan ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0012333594     PISSN: 00205850     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2623550     Document Type: Article

References (55)

1. István Bibó, 'The distress [misery] of east European small states', in Democracy, revolution, self-determination: selected writings, ed., Karoly Nagy (Social Science Monographs; Boulder, CO, Oxford: Atlantic Research and Publications, High Lakes; New York: Columbia University Press, 1991).
2. Claude Lefort, L'invention démocratique - les limites de la domination totalitaire (Paris: Fayard, 1991).
3. Alexis de Tocqueville, De la démocratie en Amérique (Paris: Garnier-Flammarion, 1981), vol. II, p. 386.
4. Charles Gati, 'The mirage of democracy', Transition 2: 6, 22 March 1996, pp. 6-12, 62.
5. Arend Lijphart, Democracies: patterns of majoritarian and consensus government in twenty-one countries (New Haven, CN, London: Yale University Press, 1984), p. 38. The first criterion, as defined by Lijphart, was the existence of political rights and civil liberties.
6. See e.g. Juan J. Linz, The breakdown of democratic regimes: crisis, breakdown and reequilibration (Baltimore, MD, London 1978), p. 8: 'Unfortunately, there is no meaningful, accepted typology of competitive democratics, nor any accepted measure of the degree of democracy. Only the distinction between democracies based on majority rule and those that Lijphart calls 'consociational' has gained wide acceptance.' See also George Orwell, 'In the case of a word like democracy not only is there no agreed definition but the attempt to make one is resisted from all sides...The defenders of any kind of regime claim that it is a democracy and fear that they might have to stop using the word if it were tied down to any one meaning' in Selected essays (Baltimore, MD: 1957), p. 149 quoted in G. Sartori, Democratic theory (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962), p.3.
7. See e.g. Juan J. Linz, The breakdown of democratic regimes: crisis, breakdown and reequilibration (Baltimore, MD, London 1978), p. 8: 'Unfortunately, there is no meaningful, accepted typology of competitive democratics, nor any accepted measure of the degree of democracy. Only the distinction between democracies based on majority rule and those that Lijphart calls 'consociational' has gained wide acceptance.' See also George Orwell, 'In the case of a word like democracy not only is there no agreed definition but the attempt to make one is resisted from all sides...The defenders of any kind of regime claim that it is a democracy and fear that they might have to stop using the word if it were tied down to any one meaning' in Selected essays (Baltimore, MD: 1957), p. 149 quoted in G. Sartori, Democratic theory (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962), p.3.
8. See e.g. Juan J. Linz, The breakdown of democratic regimes: crisis, breakdown and reequilibration (Baltimore, MD, London 1978), p. 8: 'Unfortunately, there is no meaningful, accepted typology of competitive democratics, nor any accepted measure of the degree of democracy. Only the distinction between democracies based on majority rule and those that Lijphart calls 'consociational' has gained wide acceptance.' See also George Orwell, 'In the case of a word like democracy not only is there no agreed definition but the attempt to make one is resisted from all sides...The defenders of any kind of regime claim that it is a democracy and fear that they might have to stop using the word if it were tied down to any one meaning' in Selected essays (Baltimore, MD: 1957), p. 149 , quoted in G. Sartori, Democratic theory (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962), p.3.
9. In a different vein in his early writings Marx expressed a scathing criticism of early nineteenth-century democracy, considering that formal, bourgeois democracy was insufficient, indeed a veil cast over relations of exploitation, and that a more socially equitable and just society (socialism) in the future would deliver real, substantial 'rule of the people': see 'On the Jewish question', in Karl Marx, Early Writings (New York:Vintange Books, 1975), pp. 146-7.
10. The debate between a proceduralist, formal approach to democracy and a substantive and/or normative approach has been for long a mainstay of political theory. A variety of authors address these issues. Most recently, for example, Jürgen Habermas, Between facts and norms: contributions to a discourse theory of law and democracy (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996; originally Faktizität und Geltung, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1992) has taken the proceduralist side, while Ronald Dworkin, Freedom's law: the moral reading of the American constitution (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1996) takes the substantive side.
11. The debate between a proceduralist, formal approach to democracy and a substantive and/or normative approach has been for long a mainstay of political theory. A variety of authors address these issues. Most recently, for example, Jürgen Habermas, Between facts and norms: contributions to a discourse theory of law and democracy (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996; originally Faktizität und Geltung, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1992) has taken the proceduralist side, while Ronald Dworkin, Freedom's law: the moral reading of the American constitution (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1996) takes the substantive side.
12. A. Heller, 'On formal democracy', in J. Keane, Civil society and the state (London:Verso, 1988), p. 131.
13. R. Dahl, Dilemmas of pluralist democracy (New Haven, CN: Yale University Press, 1982), p. 11.
14. See Andris Runcis, Democratisation in Latvia country report, MS, 1996; Jüri Ruus, Democratisation in Estonia, country report, MS, 1996.
15. See Andris Runcis, Democratisation in Latvia country report, MS, 1996; Jüri Ruus, Democratisation in Estonia, country report, MS, 1996.
16. Martin Palous and Zdenek Kavan, Democracy in the Czech Republic, country report, MS, 1996, pp. 9-11.
17. See the section below on 'Administration' and individual country reports: Alina Mungiu Pippidi, Romania - from procedural democracy to European integration, country report, MS, 1996 Martin Butora, The present state of democracy in Slovakia, country report MS, 1996 Rumyana Kolarova, Democratisation in Bulgaria: present tendencies, country report, MS, 1996
18. See the section below on 'Administration' and individual country reports: Alina Mungiu Pippidi, Romania - from procedural democracy to European integration, country report, MS, 1996 Martin Butora, The present state of democracy in Slovakia, country report MS, 1996 Rumyana Kolarova, Democratisation in Bulgaria: present tendencies, country report, MS, 1996
19. See the section below on 'Administration' and individual country reports: Alina Mungiu Pippidi, Romania - from procedural democracy to European integration, country report, MS, 1996 Martin Butora, The present state of democracy in Slovakia, country report MS, 1996 ; Rumyana Kolarova, Democratisation in Bulgaria: present tendencies, country report, MS, 1996
20. Philippe C. Schmitter and Terry L. Karl, 'What democracy is...and is not', Journal of Democracy 2: 3, Summer 1991, p. 78.
21. Rumyana Kolarova, country report, p. 5.
22. Ulrich Preuss, Constitutional aspects of the making of democracy in post-communist societies of east Europe (Bremen: Zentrum für Europäische Rechtspolitik, 1993), Diskussionspaper 2/93.
23. Ibid., p. 7.
24. Ibid., p. 34.
25. C. R. Sunstein, 'Rights after communism: introduction', East European Constitutional Review 4: 1, Winter 1995, p. 61.
26. See e.g. James R. Millar and Sharon L. Wolchik, eds, The social legacy of communism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
27. See N. Eberstadt, 'Eastern Europe's disturbing health crisis', Wall Street Journal, 30 Sept. 1993; also 'Social indicators and transition', Transition Report 1995 (European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1995), pp. 21-5.
28. See N. Eberstadt, 'Eastern Europe's disturbing health crisis', Wall Street Journal, 30 Sept. 1993; also 'Social indicators and transition', Transition Report 1995 (European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1995), pp. 21-5.
29. K. L. Scheppele, 'Women's rights in Eastern Europe', East European Constitutional Review 4: 1, Winter 1995, pp. 66-9.
30. Alina Mungiu Pippidi, country report.
31. H. Arendt, The origins of totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovitch, 1973), pp. 296-7.
32. Sunstein, 'Rights after communism', p. 61.
33. The PSL (Polish Peasants' Party), the largest such party in the CEECs, won 19% of the votes in parliamentary elections in September 1995 and is part of the governing coalition. Other examples are the Small-holders Party in Hungary and the Agrarian Party in Bulgaria.
34. An almost identical process occurred in Spain in the immediate post-Franco period.
35. The ruling ODS (Civic Democratic Party) of Prime Minister Klaus in the Czech Republic, which took 29.6% of the vote in the May-June 1996 parliamentary elections, is in a coalition with the ODA (Civic Democratic Alliance) and the KDU/CSL (Christian Democratic Union/Czech People's Party). The ruling HZDS (Movement for a Democratic Slovakia) of Prime Minister Meciar in Slovakia, which won 34.9% of the votes in the 1994 elections, is in a coalition with the ZRS (Association of Workers of Slovakia) and the SNS (Slovak National Party).
36. In Hungary the former communist MSZP (Hungarian Socialist Party), which in the 1994 elections won 33% of the vote but 54% of the seats in parliament, decided to create a grand coalition with the post-1989, new liberal SZDSZ (Alliance of Free Democrats) which won 20% of the vote (András Bozóki, Democracy in Hungary: confronting theory and practice, country report, MS, 1996, pp. 8-13). In Slovenia in the three years up to March 1996 the Associated List of Social Democrats (former communists) was in a grand coalition with the Liberal Democrat Party and the Christian Democrat Party (Tonci Kuzmanic, Slovenia: from Yugoslavia to the middle of nowhere, country report, MS, 1996, pp. 4-5).
37. In Hungary the former communist MSZP (Hungarian Socialist Party), which in the 1994 elections won 33% of the vote but 54% of the seats in parliament, decided to create a grand coalition with the post-1989, new liberal SZDSZ (Alliance of Free Democrats) which won 20% of the vote (András Bozóki, Democracy in Hungary: confronting theory and practice, country report, MS, 1996, pp. 8-13). In Slovenia in the three years up to March 1996 the Associated List of Social Democrats (former communists) was in a grand coalition with the Liberal Democrat Party and the Christian Democrat Party (Tonci Kuzmanic, Slovenia: from Yugoslavia to the middle of nowhere, country report, MS, 1996, pp. 4-5).
38. Giovanni Sartori, Democratic theory (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1962), p. 187.
39. See Ivan Vejvoda, 'Apolitisme et postcommunisme', Tumultes (Paris) no. 8, Sept. 1996, pp. 195-206.
40. Martin Butora, country report, p. 5.
41. Rumyana Kolarova, country report, p. 9.
42. András Bozóki, country report, p. 15: however, 'this relative loyalty was reached not by censorship but by economic influence'.
43. Martin Butora, country report, p. 12.
44. Martin Palous and Zdenek Kavan, country report.
45. Rumyana Kolarova, country report.
46. Julian Borger, 'He was a communist with the Midas touch, now he is Sofia's first "illustrious corpse"', Observer, 27 Oct. 1996 .
47. 'Governmental agencies such as the Financial Guard [in Romania] occasionally have bursts of authority and good intentions, but these remain unsupported by the Parliament and the government itself so they cannot face up to the problem of generalized corruption, traffic of influence, administrative abuses and lack of effectiveness': Alisa Mungiu Pippidi, country report, p. 6.
48. Alina Mungiu Pippidi, country report.
49. Jüri Ruus, country report.
50. Alina Mungiu Pippidi, country report.
51. See E. Hankiss, East European alternatives (Oxford: Clarendon, 1990).
52. See Andras Bozóki, country report.
53. See G. Schöpflin, 'Post-communism: the problems of democratic construction', Daedalus, Summer 1994, pp. 127-41.
54. See. M. Palous and Z. Kavan, country report.
55. Marin Król, Democracy in Poland, country report, MS, 1996.