Turkey - The return of the reluctant generals?

Political Science Quarterly

Volumn 112, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 191-215

  Lombardi, Ben ^a  

^a DEPARTMENT OF NATIONAL DEFENCE   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0005725856     PISSN: 00323195     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2657938     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. Ferenc A. Vali, Bridge Across the Bosphorus; The Foreign Policy of Turkey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971), 55.
2. Feroz Ahmad, "Islamic Reassertion in Turkey," Third World Quarterly 10 (April 1988): 752.
3. Ibid., 755.
4. Binnaz Toprak, "The State, Politics, and Religion in Turkey" in Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin, eds., State, Democracy and the Military - Turkey in the 1980s (New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1988), 125.
5. Binnaz Toprak, "The Religious Right" in Irvin C. Shick and Ertugrul Ahmet Tonak, eds., Turkey in Transition - New Perspectives (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 230.
6. John Darnton, "Discontent Seethes in Once-Stable Turkey," New York Times, 2 March 1995.
7. "Various Parties Form Islamic Alliance" (Ankara, Turkish Daily News in English, 17 June 1994) in Foreign Broadcasting Information Service - Western Europe (FBIS-WEU-94-120), 22 June 1994, 55-56.
8. "Islamic Party Leader Condemns "'European Infidels'" (Paris, AFP in English, 21 November 1994) in FBIS-WEU-94-226, 23 November 1994, 57.
9. In a recent analysis, Edward G. Shirley has written that fundamentalists in the Arab world "now aim at constructing an Islamic society independent of the state. Culture, not politics, is the first battleground." See "Is Iran's Present Algeria's Future?" Foreign Affairs 74 (May-June 1995): 23.
10. See "Poll Predicts Victory for Islamic RP in Election" (Ankara, Turkish Daily News in English, 18 May 1995) in FBIS-WEU-95-099, 23 May 1995, 42.
11. James Wyllie, "Turkey Succumbs to the Lure of Refah," Jane's Intelligence Review, March 1996, 124.
12. "RP and Secular Rivals Jostle for Power," Turkish Daily News, 26 December 1995; and Roman Rollnick, "Turkish Poll Keeps the West Guessing," The European, 3 January 1996.
13. "RP and Secular Rivals Jostle for Power," Turkish Daily News, 26 December 1995; and Roman Rollnick, "Turkish Poll Keeps the West Guessing," The European, 3 January 1996.
14. Wyllie, "Turkey Succumbs to the Lure of Refah," 124.
15. See "Ciller Cold Shoulders Erbakan," Turkish Daily News, 12 January 1996.
16. "Turkish Firebrand Dreams of Islamic World Order," Turkish Daily News, 24 December 1995.
17. Lowell Bezanis, "Turkish Coalition Government Talks Fail Again," OMRI Analytical Brief, 26 February 1996, vol. 1, no. 13.
18. "Turkey: Yilmaz Reports Failure to Reach Accord with RP" (Ankara, TRT Television in Turkish, 24 February 1996) in FBIS-WEU-96-038, 26 February 1996, 43.
19. Henry Kamm, "Local Elections in Turkey May Set Fate of Sagging National Cabinet," New York Times, 28 March 1994; Henry Kamm, "Islamic Party in Turkey Does Well in Local Voting," New York Times, 29 March 1994; "Secular Turks' Fears," Balkan News and East European Report, 3-9 April 1994; and "Turkey Eyes Islam," The Economist, 2 April 1994. Similar views have been expressed since the December 1995 election. See "Turkey: Poll on Political Leaders, Democracy," (Istanbul, Hurriyet in Turkish, 17 March 1996) in FBIS-WEU-96-056, 21 March 1996, 30.
20. Henry Kamm, "Local Elections in Turkey May Set Fate of Sagging National Cabinet," New York Times, 28 March 1994; Henry Kamm, "Islamic Party in Turkey Does Well in Local Voting," New York Times, 29 March 1994; "Secular Turks' Fears," Balkan News and East European Report, 3-9 April 1994; and "Turkey Eyes Islam," The Economist, 2 April 1994. Similar views have been expressed since the December 1995 election. See "Turkey: Poll on Political Leaders, Democracy," (Istanbul, Hurriyet in Turkish, 17 March 1996) in FBIS-WEU-96-056, 21 March 1996, 30.
21. Henry Kamm, "Local Elections in Turkey May Set Fate of Sagging National Cabinet," New York Times, 28 March 1994; Henry Kamm, "Islamic Party in Turkey Does Well in Local Voting," New York Times, 29 March 1994; "Secular Turks' Fears," Balkan News and East European Report, 3-9 April 1994; and "Turkey Eyes Islam," The Economist, 2 April 1994. Similar views have been expressed since the December 1995 election. See "Turkey: Poll on Political Leaders, Democracy," (Istanbul, Hurriyet in Turkish, 17 March 1996) in FBIS-WEU-96-056, 21 March 1996, 30.
22. Henry Kamm, "Local Elections in Turkey May Set Fate of Sagging National Cabinet," New York Times, 28 March 1994; Henry Kamm, "Islamic Party in Turkey Does Well in Local Voting," New York Times, 29 March 1994; "Secular Turks' Fears," Balkan News and East European Report, 3-9 April 1994; and "Turkey Eyes Islam," The Economist, 2 April 1994. Similar views have been expressed since the December 1995 election. See "Turkey: Poll on Political Leaders, Democracy," (Istanbul, Hurriyet in Turkish, 17 March 1996) in FBIS-WEU-96-056, 21 March 1996, 30.
23. Henry Kamm, "Local Elections in Turkey May Set Fate of Sagging National Cabinet," New York Times, 28 March 1994; Henry Kamm, "Islamic Party in Turkey Does Well in Local Voting," New York Times, 29 March 1994; "Secular Turks' Fears," Balkan News and East European Report, 3-9 April 1994; and "Turkey Eyes Islam," The Economist, 2 April 1994. Similar views have been expressed since the December 1995 election. See "Turkey: Poll on Political Leaders, Democracy," (Istanbul, Hurriyet in Turkish, 17 March 1996) in FBIS-WEU-96-056, 21 March 1996, 30.
24. Binnaz Toprak, "The State, Politics, and Religion in Turkey" in Heper and Evin, State, Democracy and the Military, 131.
25. Feroz Ahmad, "Politics and Islam in Modern Turkey," Middle Eastern Studies 27 (January 1991): 18-19; and Ahmad, "Islamic Reassertion in Turkey," 767.
26. Feroz Ahmad, "Politics and Islam in Modern Turkey," Middle Eastern Studies 27 (January 1991): 18-19; and Ahmad, "Islamic Reassertion in Turkey," 767.
27. "Government Crisis Jolts Parties," Turkish Daily News, 13 February 1996.
28. OMRI Daily Brief, 31 July 1995.
29. Ian Mather, "Turkey breaks Balkan Taboo," The European, (7-13 April 1994): 1.
30. "Turkey: Balkan Agenda," Oxford Analytica Daily Brief, 13 February 1996.
31. "Islamic Influence in Police Force Viewed" (Ankara, Turkish Daily News in English, 14 April 1994) in FBIS-WEU-94-078, 22 April 1994, 40.
32. See Oklay Akbal, "Les militaires complices de l'islamisme: Les généraux ont trahi Ataturk au nom d'Ataturk," Courrier International, no. 232, 13-19 avril 1995. This article was originally published in Milliyet, an Istanbul newspaper.
33. See Oklay Akbal, "Les militaires complices de l'islamisme: Les généraux ont trahi Ataturk au nom d'Ataturk," Courrier International, no. 232, 13-19 avril 1995. This article was originally published in Milliyet, an Istanbul newspaper.
34. "Islamic Influence in Police Force Viewed" (Ankara, Turkish Daily News in English, 14 April 1994) in FBIS-WEU-94-078, 22 April 1994, 40.
35. Eric Rouleau, "The Challenges to Turkey," Foreign Policy 103 (Summer 1996): 110. The nostalgia for the Ottoman period was not restricted to Ozal. In the Turkish press, contributions debate the relative merits of various sultans. During the 1994 campaign, Refah also declared that it wanted to institute the "Ottoman tradition in municipal affairs." However, they failed to explain what this tradition entailed. Ottoman has, in effect, become a metaphor for Turkey's golden age.
36. National Defense Academy, "Turkey: Regional Power," European Security - European Instabilities (Vienna: 1993), 204. This chapter was based on an article by Christian Glatz published in Österreichische Militårische Zeitschrift, May 1992.
37. National Defense Academy, "Turkey: Regional Power," European Security - European Instabilities (Vienna: 1993), 204. This chapter was based on an article by Christian Glatz published in Österreichische Militårische Zeitschrift, May 1992.
38. "Demirel Cited on Islamic Factor in Turkey" (Ankara, Turkish Daily News in English, 21 April 1994) in FBIS-WEU-94-083, 29 April 1994, 54.
39. For a discussion of the problem posed by the growing numbers and heightened profile of Imam schools, see Cemal Subasi, "Imam Preacher Schools Aim for Government Power" (Istanbul, Notka in Turkish, 16-22 April 1995) in FBIS-WEU-94-102, 26 May 1995, 23-30.
40. National Defense Academy, "Turkey: Regional Power," European Security - European Instabilities, 204.
41. Rouleau, "The Challenges to Turkey," 119.
42. National Defense Academy, "Turkey: Regional Power," European Security - European Instabilities, 204.
43. "Turkey: Islamic Business," Oxford Analytica Daily Brief, 3 April 1996.
44. "Demirel Interviewed on Pan-Turkism, Karabakh" (Moscow, Novoye Vremya in Russian, 29 September 1992) in FBIS-WEU-92-198, 13 October 1992, 43.
45. Demirel repeated these views in "Creating a Community of Equals," Harvard International Review (Fall 1992): 32-33.
46. See "Demirel Cited on Islamic Factor in Turkey" (Ankara, Turkish Daily News in English, 21 April 1994) in FBIS-WEU-94-083, 29 April 1994, 54-58; and "Ciller Calls Western Reporting on State 'Biased'" (Vienna, News in German, 1 June 1994) in FBIS-WEU-94-106, 2 June 1994, 44.
47. See "Demirel Cited on Islamic Factor in Turkey" (Ankara, Turkish Daily News in English, 21 April 1994) in FBIS-WEU-94-083, 29 April 1994, 54-58; and "Ciller Calls Western Reporting on State 'Biased'" (Vienna, News in German, 1 June 1994) in FBIS-WEU-94-106, 2 June 1994, 44.
48. Erbakan has been careful not to call for the violent overthrow of the state. His wife, Nermin Erbakan, has not been so reticent: "There aren't twelve million inhabitants of Istanbul, nor the sixty million Turks, but one-and-a-half billion Muslims in the whole world who are waiting for us. I hope that, tomorrow, we will celebrate the revolution." Quoted in Oklay Akbal, "Les militarires complices de l'islamisme; Les généraux ont trahi Ataturk au nom d'Ataturk," Courrier International, no. 232, 13-19 April 1995.
49. "Islamic Influence in Police Force Viewed" (Ankara, Turkish Daily News in English, 14 April 1994) in FBIS-WEU-94-078, 22 April 1994, 40.
50. Jonathon Rugman, "Turkish Violence Spreads to Ankara," The Gazette (Montreal), 15 March 1995.
51. Quoted in Suna Erdem, "Amid Turkey Riots, Ankara Warns of 'Provocations'," Reuters News Agency, 16 March 1995.
52. Jonathon Rugman, "Violence a Chilling Reminder of 1980 Chaos, Coup," The Citizen (Ottawa), 16 March 1995.
53. Michael Schwelien, "Europa als Lebensretter," Die Zeit, 27 January 1995.
54. It is estimated that since 1994, 500,000 people have lost their jobs. See Birgit Cerha, "Madame le Premier Ministre est une piètre politique," Courrier International, no. 232, 13-19 April 1995, 11.
55. "DYP Issues 'Early Warning' to Coalition Partner ANAP," Turkish Daily News, 28 March 1996.
56. Ziya Onis, "Turkey in the Post Cold War Era: In Search of Identity," Middle East Journal 49 (Winter 1995): 64-65.
57. "Growing Rift between Demirel, Ciller Alleged" (Ankara, Turkish Daily News in English, 8 February 1995) in FBIS-WEU-95-029, 13 February 1995, 43.
58. "Demirel Comments on Kurdish Issue, Elections" (Istanbul, Milliyet in Turkish, 2 May 1995) in FBIS-WEU-95-089, 9 May 1995, 53.
59. "DYP Issues 'Early Warning' to Coalition Partner ANAP," Turkish Daily News, 28 March 1996.
60. "Turkey's Secular Coalition Gov't Pass First Test With Leftist Help," New Europe, 17-23 March 1996.
61. See "Turkish Economy May Not Find Relief under New Gov't," New Europe, 10-16 January, 1996; and "Turkey: Economic Hurdles," Oxford Analytica Daily Brief, 18 March 1996.
62. See "Turkish Economy May Not Find Relief under New Gov't," New Europe, 10-16 January, 1996; and "Turkey: Economic Hurdles," Oxford Analytica Daily Brief, 18 March 1996.
63. National Defense Academy, "Turkey: Regional Power," European Security - European Instabilities, 220.
64. "Demirel Comments on Kurdish Issue, Elections" (Istanbul, Milliyet in Turkish, 2 May 1995) in FBIS-WEU-95-089, 9 May 1995, 53.
65. At the time of her accession to the premiership, Ciller stated that she would "embrace" the twelve million Kurds "with a mother's love." See Birgit Cerha, "Madame le Premier Ministre est une piètre politique," Courrier International, no. 232, 13-19 April 1995, 11.
66. See Keesing's Chronicle of World Events, April 1995, 40522; "Germany Suspends Remaining Military Aid to Turkey," This Week in Germany, 31 March 1995; Steven Greenhouse, "US Support for Turk's Anti-Kurd Campaign Dims," New York Times, 29 March 1995; and Sami Kohen, "A Little Mideast War Tests Turkey," Christian Science Monitor, 24 March 1995, 7. For the reaction of U.S. political leaders, see the Congressional Record, especially speeches by Representative Steny H. Hoyes of Maryland, 20 January 1995, E146 and Senator Dennis DeConcini, 2 March 1994, 52231.
67. See Keesing's Chronicle of World Events, April 1995, 40522; "Germany Suspends Remaining Military Aid to Turkey," This Week in Germany, 31 March 1995; Steven Greenhouse, "US Support for Turk's Anti-Kurd Campaign Dims," New York Times, 29 March 1995; and Sami Kohen, "A Little Mideast War Tests Turkey," Christian Science Monitor, 24 March 1995, 7. For the reaction of U.S. political leaders, see the Congressional Record, especially speeches by Representative Steny H. Hoyes of Maryland, 20 January 1995, E146 and Senator Dennis DeConcini, 2 March 1994, 52231.
68. See Keesing's Chronicle of World Events, April 1995, 40522; "Germany Suspends Remaining Military Aid to Turkey," This Week in Germany, 31 March 1995; Steven Greenhouse, "US Support for Turk's Anti-Kurd Campaign Dims," New York Times, 29 March 1995; and Sami Kohen, "A Little Mideast War Tests Turkey," Christian Science Monitor, 24 March 1995, 7. For the reaction of U.S. political leaders, see the Congressional Record, especially speeches by Representative Steny H. Hoyes of Maryland, 20 January 1995, E146 and Senator Dennis DeConcini, 2 March 1994, 52231.
69. See Keesing's Chronicle of World Events, April 1995, 40522; "Germany Suspends Remaining Military Aid to Turkey," This Week in Germany, 31 March 1995; Steven Greenhouse, "US Support for Turk's Anti-Kurd Campaign Dims," New York Times, 29 March 1995; and Sami Kohen, "A Little Mideast War Tests Turkey," Christian Science Monitor, 24 March 1995, 7. For the reaction of U.S. political leaders, see the Congressional Record, especially speeches by Representative Steny H. Hoyes of Maryland, 20 January 1995, E146 and Senator Dennis DeConcini, 2 March 1994, 52231.
70. See Keesing's Chronicle of World Events, April 1995, 40522; "Germany Suspends Remaining Military Aid to Turkey," This Week in Germany, 31 March 1995; Steven Greenhouse, "US Support for Turk's Anti-Kurd Campaign Dims," New York Times, 29 March 1995; and Sami Kohen, "A Little Mideast War Tests Turkey," Christian Science Monitor, 24 March 1995, 7. For the reaction of U.S. political leaders, see the Congressional Record, especially speeches by Representative Steny H. Hoyes of Maryland, 20 January 1995, E146 and Senator Dennis DeConcini, 2 March 1994, 52231.
71. This point is made by Amatzia Baram of the University of Haifa. See Patricia Carley, Turkey's Role in the Middle East; A Conference Report (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, January 1995).
72. See Michael Binyon and Michael Kallenbach, "Iraq Attack Could Harm Turkey's EU Prospects," The Independent, 24 March 1995.
73. See Facts on File 20 (29 December to 4 January 196): 481.
74. For the Menderes government's programs and the public reaction, see Keesing's Contemporary Archives, 27 May to 3 June 1950, 10725-10726 and 29 May to 5 June 1954, 13598-13598.
75. Ibid., 2-9 July 1960, 17501.
76. In response to growing opposition, the government requested the Ankara garrison commander to draw up a plan for the defense of Ankara in the event of further unrest. According to contemporary reports, this plan was used as the basis for the military's seizure of power eleven days later. See ibid.
77. Ibid., 17502. It is important to note, however, that while other senior officers did not support government policy, neither did they support the coup. Within the High Command, the chief of staff and Ankara's military governor were arrested the day of the coup. Although replaced, the Istanbul military governor was not detained.
78. Ibid.
79. Ibid., 17503.
80. Ibid., 24637.
81. Ibid., 24638.
82. It may be that the action by the service chiefs was less radical than the demands of lower ranking officers. On 16 March, it was reported that more than 200 officers, including four generals and an admiral, had been transferred from their commands or cashiered, fuelling rumours that support for a military coup d'etat was strong within the armed forces. See ibid., 24640-24641.
83. Kenneth Mackenzie, "Turkey Under The Generals," Conflict Studies, January 1981, 3.
84. Keesing's, 31 October 1980, 30541.
85. Mehmet Ali Birand, The General's Coup in Turkey - An Inside Story of 12 September 1980 (London: Brassey's, 1987), 62.
86. Mackenzie, "Turkey Under The Generals," Conflict Studies, January 1981, 6.
87. For a complete text of the letter, see Birand, The General's Coup in Turkey, 100.
88. Mackenzie, "Turkey Under the Generals," 13.
89. Evren kept a diary beginning in late December 1979. The entry for 3 January is: "Returned from the weekly meeting with the President. Told me that Demirel was very dejected upon receiving the letter and contemplated resignation. I said, in return, that the letter wasn't designed to change the government or cause a political crisis. It wasn't addressed specifically to this government. I said that the intention was to alert all political parties, including the one in power, as well as all constitutional bodies." Quoted in Birand, The General's Coup in Turkey, 110.
90. This point is made by Michael Schwelien, "Europa als Lebensretter," Die Zeit, 27 January 1995.
91. "Differences between Ciller, Chief of Staff" (Istanbul, Ozgur Ulke in Turkish, 4 January 1995) in FBIS-WEU-95-007, 11 January 1995, 71.
92. Feroz Ahmad, "Islamic Reassertion in Turkey," Third World Quarterly 10 (April 1988): 751.
93. See "Religious Radicalism Infiltrates Turkish Armed Forces," International Defense Review 2 (1995): 9.
94. See "Fundamentalist Personnel Withdrawn from Active Duty" (Istanbul, Milliyet in Turkish, 5 December 1994) in FBIS-WEU-94-238, 12 December 1994, 70.
95. "Difference between Ciller and Chief of Staff" (Istanbul, Ozgur Ulke in Turkish, 4 January 1996) in FBIS-WEU-95-007, 11 January 1996, 70.
96. Celestine Bohlen, "Turkish Army in New Battle In the Defense of Secularism," New York Times, 30 March 1996.
97. "Coup Rumors Abound After Ataturkist Officers' Letter" (Istanbul, Yeni Gunaydin in Turkish, 5 January 1995) in FBIS-WEU-95-006, 10 January 1995, 60.
98. See "Politicians Said Expecting Military Coup" (Istanbul, Milliyet in Turkish, 17 January 1995) in FBIS-WEU-95-030, 14 February 1995, 42.
99. Quoted in Oklay Akbal, "Les militaires complices de l'islamisme," Courrier International, No. 232, 13-19 April 1995.
100. "Chief of Staff Warns of 'Reactionary Elements'" (Istanbul, Sabah in Turkish, 23 December 1995) in FBIS-WEU-95-247, 26 December 1995, 27.
101. "Demirel Told of Military Concerns About a Welfare-led Government," Turkish Daily News, 9 January 1996.
102. "President Suleyman Demirel," Turkish Daily News, 15 March 1996.
103. See the interview with Erbakan in Der Spiegel, 17 June 1996.
104. See "Erbakan Says Gov't Keen to Probe Security Scandal," New Europe, 1-7 December 1996; "Erbakan's Comments on 'Sacrifice Hides,' Mosques" (Istanbul, Turkiye in Turkish, 5 February 1997) in FBIS-WEU-97-026, 5 February 1997; and Stephen Kinzer, "The Islamist Who Runs Turkey, Delicately," New York Times Magazine, 23 February 1997.
105. See "Erbakan Says Gov't Keen to Probe Security Scandal," New Europe, 1-7 December 1996; "Erbakan's Comments on 'Sacrifice Hides,' Mosques" (Istanbul, Turkiye in Turkish, 5 February 1997) in FBIS-WEU-97-026, 5 February 1997; and Stephen Kinzer, "The Islamist Who Runs Turkey, Delicately," New York Times Magazine, 23 February 1997.
106. See "Erbakan Says Gov't Keen to Probe Security Scandal," New Europe, 1-7 December 1996; "Erbakan's Comments on 'Sacrifice Hides,' Mosques" (Istanbul, Turkiye in Turkish, 5 February 1997) in FBIS-WEU-97-026, 5 February 1997; and Stephen Kinzer, "The Islamist Who Runs Turkey, Delicately," New York Times Magazine, 23 February 1997.
107. "Ciller Warns Deputies to Keep Quiet on Coalition's Future," Turkish Daily News, 11 April 1997.
108. "Sincan Meeting Seen Angering Military Forces" (Istanbul, Hurriyet in Turkish, 4 February 1997) in FBIS-WEU-97-024, 4 February 1997; and "Tanks Roll Through Sincan in 'Show of Strength'" (Istanbul, Hurriyet in Turkish, 5 February 1997) in FBIS-WEU-97-024, 5 February 1997.
109. "Sincan Meeting Seen Angering Military Forces" (Istanbul, Hurriyet in Turkish, 4 February 1997) in FBIS-WEU-97-024, 4 February 1997; and "Tanks Roll Through Sincan in 'Show of Strength'" (Istanbul, Hurriyet in Turkish, 5 February 1997) in FBIS-WEU-97-024, 5 February 1997.
110. Umit Enginsoy, "Islamic Rift in Turkey Will Deepen," Defense News, 10-16 March 1997.
111. "Former Army Chief Rules Out Coup d'Etat" (Milan, Corriere della Sera, in Italian, 24 February 1997) in FBIS-WEU-97-036, 24 February 1997.
112. See Turkish Daily News from 28 February until 15 March 1997. Numerous articles on the growing tension between the government and the military, and the possibility of a coup, were printed.
113. "Top Generals Stage 'Soft Coup,'" New Europe, 9-15 March 1997.