The effects of diet, aging and disease-states on presystemic elimination and oral drug bioavailability in humans

Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews

Volumn 27, Issue 2-3, 1997, Pages 129-159

  Wilkinson, Grant R ^a  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Age; Diet; Disease; First pass metabolism; Oral bioavailability

Indexed keywords

BLOOD; CARCINOGENS; DISEASES; DRUG THERAPY; ENZYMES; METABOLISM; SUBSTRATES;

AGE; DIET; FIRST PASS METABOLISM; ORAL BIOAVAILABILITY;

DRUG INTERACTIONS;

CHLORZOXAZONE; CYCLOSPORIN; CYTOCHROME P450; CYTOCHROME P450 ISOENZYME; DRUG; DRUG METABOLIZING ENZYME; ENCAINIDE; ESTRADIOL; FELODIPINE; GLUCOSINOLATE; ITRACONAZOLE; LABETALOL; METOPROLOL; MIDAZOLAM; MORPHINE; NIFEDIPINE; NISOLDIPINE; NITRENDIPINE; PARACETAMOL; PENTAZOCINE; PENTOXIFYLLINE; PETHIDINE; POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON; THEOPHYLLINE; TRACE ELEMENT; UNINDEXED DRUG; VERAPAMIL; VITAMIN; XENOBIOTIC AGENT;

AGING; DIET; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG METABOLISM; FIRST PASS EFFECT; FOOD DRUG INTERACTION; GARLIC; HUMAN; LIVER DISEASE; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PHARMACOKINETICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

EID: 0342547065     PISSN: 0169409X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0169-409X(97)00040-9     Document Type: Review

References (285)

1. Lautenbach B.F. On a new function of the liver. Philadelphia Med. Times. 7:1877;387-394.
2. Recommendations from the Drug Bioequivalence Study Panel to the Office of Technology Assessment, Congress of the United States, Drug bioequivalence, J. Pharmacokinet. Biopharm. 2 (1974) 433-466.
3. Rowland M. Influence of route of administration on drug availability. J. Pharm. Sci. 61:1972;70-74.
4. Rowland M., Benet L.Z., Graham G.G. Clearance concepts in pharmacokinetics. J. Pharmacokinet. Biopharm. 1:1973;123-136.
5. Wilkinson G.R., Shand D.G. A physiological approach to hepatic drug clearance. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 18:1975;377-390.
6. Pond S.M., Tozer T.M. First-pass elimination: basic concepts and clinical consequences. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 9:1984;1-25.
7. Back D.J., Rogers S.M. First-pass metabolism by the gastrointestinal mucosa. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 1:1987;339-357.
8. Pang K.S., Gillette J.R. Theoretical relationships between area under the curve and route of administration of drugs and their precursors for evaluating sites and pathways of metabolism. J. Pharm. Sci. 67:1978;703-704.
9. Klippert P.J.M., Noordhoek J. Influence of administration route and blood sampling site on the area under the curve: assessment of gut-wall, liver and lung metabolism from a physiological model. Drug Metab. Dispos. 11:1983;62-66.
10. Ilett K.F., Tee L.B.G., Reeves P.T., Minchin R.F. Metabolism of drugs and other xenobiotics in the gut-lumen and wall. Pharmacol. Ther. 46:1990;67-93.
11. A.S. Koster, E. Richter, F. Hartmann, F. Lauterbach, Intestinal Metabolism of Xenobiotics, Gustav Fischer Verlag, New York, 1989.
12. Chadwick R.W., George S.E., Claxton L.-D. Role of gastrointestinal mucosa and microflora in the bioactivation of dietary and environmental mutagens or carcinogens. Drug Metab. Rev. 24:1992;425-492.
13. Gillette J.R. Sequential organ first-pass effects: simple methods for constructing compartmental pharmacokinetic models from physiological models of drug disposition by several organs. J. Pharm. Sci. 71:1982;673-677.
14. Wilkinson G.R. Clearances approaches in pharmacology. Pharmacol. Rev. 39:1987;1-47.
15. Kolars J.C., Lown K.S., Schmiedlin-Ren P., Ghosh M., Fang C., Wrighton S.A., Merion R.M., Watkins P.B. CYP3A gene expression in human gut epithelium. Pharmacogenetics. 4:1994;247-259.
16. Kolars J.C., Schmiedlin-Ren P., Schuetz J.D., Fang C., Watkins P.B. Identification of rifampin-inducible P450IIIA4 (CYP3A4) in human small bowel enterocytes. J. Clin. Invest. 90:1992;1871-1878.
17. Kolars J.C., Schmiedlin-Ren P., Dobbins W.O. III, Schuetz J., Wrighton S.A., Watkins P.B. Heterogeneity of cytochrome P450IIIA expression in rat gut epithelia. Gastroenterology. 102:1992;1186-1198.
18. P. Maurel, The CYP3 family, in: C. Ioannides (Ed.), Cytochromes P450: Metabolic and Toxicological Aspects, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1996, pp. 241-270.
19. Lown K.S., Kolars J.C., Thummel K.E., Barnett J.L., Kunze K.L., Wrighton S.A., Watkins P.B. Interpatient heterogeneity in expression of CYP3A4 and CYP3A in small bowel - lack of prediction by the erythromycin breath test. Drug Metab. Dispos. 22:1994;947-955.
20. Thummel K.E., O'Shea D., Paine M.F., Shen D.D., Kunze K.L., Perkins J.D., Wilkinson G.R. Oral first-pass elimination of midazolam involves both gastrointestinal and hepatic CYP3A-mediated metabolism. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 59:1996;491-502.
21. Honig P.K., Woosley R.L., Zamani K., Conner D.P., Cantilena L.R. Jr. Changes in the pharmacokinetics and electrocardiographic pharmacodynamics of terfenadine with concomitant administration of erythromycin. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 52:1992;231-238.
22. Kato R. Drug metabolism under pathological and abnormal physiological states in animals and man. Xenobiotica. 7:1977;25-92.
23. Yang C.S., Yoo J.-S.H. Dietary effects on drug metabolism by the mixed function oxidase system. Pharmacol. Ther. 38:1988;53-72.
24. Block G., Patterson B., Subar A. Fruit, vegetables, and cancer prevention: a review of the epidemiological evidence. Nutr. Cancer. 18:1992;1-29.
25. Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1996.
26. Anderson K.E., Kappas A. Dietary regulation of cytochrome P450. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 11:1991;141-167.
27. Walter-Sack I., Klotz U. Influence of diet and nutritional status on drug metabolism. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 31:1996;47-64.
28. Kappas A., Anderson K.E., Conney A.H., Alvares A.P. Influence of dietary protein and carbohydrate on antipyrine and theophylline metabolism in man. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 20:1976;643-653.
29. Anderson K.E., Cooney A.H., Kappas A. Nutrition and oxidative drug metabolism in man: relative influence of dietary lipids, carbohydrate, and protein. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 26:1979;493-501.
30. Juan D., Worwag E.M., Schoeller D.A., Kotake A.N., Hughes R.L., Frederiksen M.C. Effects of dietary protein on theophylline pharmacokinetics and caffeine and aminopyrine breath tests. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 40:1986;187-194.
31. Fagan T.C., Walle T., Oexmann M.J., Walle U.K., Bai S.A., Gaffney T.E. Increased clearance of propranolol and theophylline by high-protein compared with high-carbohydrate diet. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 41:1987;402-406.
32. Anderson K.E., Kappas A., Conney A.H., Bradlow H.L., Fishman J. The influence of dietary protein and carbohydrate on the principal oxidative biotransformations of estradiol in normal subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 59:1984;103-107.
33. Balabud C., Vinon G., Paccalin J. Influence of dietary protein and carbohydrate on phenytoin metabolism in man. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 8:1979;369-370.
34. Pantuck E.J., Pantuck C.B., Kappas A., Conney A.H., Anderson K.E. Effects of protein and carbohydrate content of diet on drug conjugation. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 50:1991;254-258.
35. Thurman R.G., Kaufman F.C. Factors regulating drug metabolism in intact hepatocytes. Pharmacol. Rev. 26:1980;171-197.
36. Anderson K.E., Pantuck E.J., Pantuck C.B., Conney A.H., Kappas A. A controlled diet reduces intraindividual variability in drug disposition. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 49:1991;173.
37. K. Krishnaswamy, Effects of malnutrition on drug metabolism and toxicity in humans, in: J.N. Hathcock (Ed.), Nutritional Toxicology, Vol. II, Academic Press, New York, 1987, pp. 105-128.
38. Narang R.K., Mehta S., Mathur V.S., Phil D. Pharmacokinetic study of antipyrine in malnourished children. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 30:1977;1979-1982.
39. Homeida M., Karrar Z.A., Roberts C.J.C. Drug metabolism in malnourished children: a study with antipyrine. Arch. Dis. Child. 54:1979;299-302.
40. Travouez J.-L., Lerebous E., Chreitien P., Fouin-Fortunet H., Colin R. Hepatic antipyrine metabolism in malnourished patients: influence of the type of malnutrition and course after nutrition rehabilitation. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 41:1985;1257-1264.
41. Krishnaswamy K., Kalamegham R., Naidu N.A. Dietary influence on the kinetics of antipyrine and aminopyrine in human subjects. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 17:1987;139-146.
42. Wissel P.S., Denke M., Inturrisi C.E. A comparison of the effects of a macrobiotic diet and a Western diet on drug metabolism and plasma lipids in man. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 33:1987;403-407.
43. Eriksson M., Paalzow L., Bolme P., Marium T.W. Chloramphenicol pharmacokinetics in Ethiopian children of differing nutritional status. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 24:1984;819-823.
44. Brockmöller J., Roots I. Assessment of liver metabolic function: clinical implications. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 27:1994;216-248.
45. P.G. Welling, Drug-food interactions affecting drug absorption, in: P.F. D'Arcy, J.C. McElnay, P.G. Welling (Eds.), Mechanisms of Drug Interactions, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1996, pp. 45-123.
46. Melander A., Lalka D., Mclean A. Influence of food on the presystemic metabolism of drugs. Pharmacol. Ther. 38:1988;253-267.
47. Melander A., Danielson K., Schersten B., Wåhlin E. Enhancement of the bioavailability of propranolol by food. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 22:1977;108-112.
48. McLean A.J., Isbister C., Bobik A., Dudley F.J. Reduction of first-pass hepatic clearance of propranolol by food. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 30:1981;31-34.
49. Daneshmend T.K., Roberts C.J.C. The influence of food on the oral and intravenous pharmacokinetics of a high clearance drug: a study with labetalol. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 14:1982;73-78.
50. Mäntylä R., Allonen H., Kanto J., Kleimola T., Sellman R. Effect of food on the bioavailability of labetalol. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 9:1980;435-437.
51. Axelson J.E., Chan G.L.-Y., Kirsten E.B., Mason W.D., Lanman R.C., Kerr C.R. Food increases the bioavailability of propafenone. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 23:1987;735-741.
52. Leidholm H., Lidén A., Kroon L., Melander A., Wåhlin-Boll E. Pharmacokinetics of dixyrazine: low bioavailability improved by food intake. Drug-Nutrient Interact. 3:1985;87-92.
53. Aaes-Jorgensen T., Liedholm H., Melander A. Influence of food intake of the bioavailability of zuclopenthixol. Drug-Nutrient Interact. 5:1987;157-160.
54. Melander A., McLean A. Influence of food intake on presystemic clearance of drugs. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 8:1983;286-296.
55. Melander A., Berlin-Wahlén A., Bodin N.-O., Danielson K., Gustafsson B., Lindgren S., Westerlund D. Bioavailability of D-propoxyphene, acetylsalicylic acid, and phenazone in a combination tablet (Doleron®): interindividual variation and influence of food intake. Acta Med. Scand. 202:1977;119-124.
56. Stanaszek W.F., Kellerman D., Brogden R.N., Romankiewicz J.A. Prazosin update: a review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic use in hypertension and congestive heart failure. Drugs. 25:1983;339-384.
57. Wahlén A., Westerlund D., Wåhlin-Boll E., Melander A. Influence of food intake on the bioavailability of zimelidine and its active metabolite, norzimelidine. Drug-Nutrient Interact. 2:1983;175-181.
58. du Souich P., Lery N., Lery L., Varian S., Boucher M.et al. Influence of food on the bioavailability of diltiazem and two of its metabolites following the administration of conventional tablets and slow-release capsules. Biopharm. Drug Dispos. 11:1990;137-147.
59. Woodcock B.G., Kramer N., Rietbrock N. Effect of a high protein meal on the bioavailability of verapamil. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 21:1986;337-338.
60. McLean A.J., McNamara P.J., duSouich P., Gibaldi M., Lalka D. Food, splanchnic blood flow, and bioavailability of drugs subject to first-pass metabolism. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 24:1978;5-10.
61. Chou C.C. Splanchnic and overall hemodynamics during eating and digestion. Fed. Proc. 42:1983;1658-1661.
62. Svensson C.K., Edward D.J., Mauriello P.M., Barde S.H., Foster A.C., Lanc R.A., Middleton E., Lalka D. Effect of food on hepatic blood flow: implications in the "food effect" phenomenon. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 34:1983;316-323.
63. Feely J., Nadeau J., Wood A.J.J. Effects of feeding on the systemic clearance of indocyanine green and propranolol blood concentrations and plasma binding. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 15:1983;383-385.
64. Svensson C.K., Mauriello P.M., Barde S.H., Middleton E., Lalka D. Effect of carbohydrates on estimated hepatic blood flow. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 35:1984;660-665.
65. Olanoff L.S., Walle T., Cowart T.D., Walle U.K., Oexmann M.J., Conradi E.C. Food effects on propranolol systemic and oral clearance: support for a blood flow hypothesis. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 40:1986;408-414.
66. Elvin A.T., Cole A.F.D., Pieper J.A., Rolbin S.H., Lalka D. Effect of food on lidocaine kinetics: mechanism of food-related alteration in high intrinsic clearance drug elimination. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 30:1981;455-460.
67. Modi M.W., Hassett J.M., Lalka D. Influence of posture on hepatic perfusion and the presystemic biotransformation of propranolol: simulation of the food effect. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 44:1988;268-274.
68. Corbett H., Cahill C.M., Heinzow B., Harrison P.M., Byrne A.J., McLean A.J. Interaction between oral hydralazine and propranolol. II. Assessment of altered splanchnic blood flow as the determinant of altered presystemic extraction. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 239:1986;517-521.
69. Walle T., Fagan T.C., Walle K., Oexmann M., Conradi E.C., Gaffney T.E. Food-induced increase in propranolol bioavailability - relationship to protein and effects on metabolites. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 30:1981;79-795.
70. Liedholm H., Melander A. Concomitant food intake can increase the bioavailability of propranolol by transient inhibition of its presystemic primary conjugation. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 40:1986;29-36.
71. Leidholm H., Wåhlin-Boll E., Melander A. Mechanisms and variations in the food effect on propranolol bioavailability. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 38:1990;469-475.
72. Jackman G.P., McLean A.J., Jennings G.L., Bobik A. No stereoselective first-pass hepatic extraction of propranolol. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 30:1981;291-296.
73. Semple H.A., Tam Y.K., Coutts R.T. A computer simulation of the food effect: transient changes in hepatic blood flow and Michaelis-Menten parameters as mediators of hepatic first pass metabolism and bioavailability of propranolol. Biopharm. Drug Dispos. 11:1990;61-76.
74. Semple H.A., Xia F. Interaction between propranolol and amino acids in the single-pass isolated, perfused rat liver. Drug Metab. Dispos. 23:1995;794-798.
75. Liedholm H., Melander M.D. Concomitant food intake can increase the bioavailability of propranolol by transient inhibition of its presystemic primary conjugation. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 40:1986;29-36.
76. Siddoway L.A., Thompson K.A., McAllister C.B., Wang T., Wilkinson G.R., Roden D.M., Woosley R.L. Polymorphism of propafenone metabolism and disposition in man: clinical and pharmacokinetic consequences. Circulation. 75:1987;785-791.
77. Shand D.G., Rangno R.E. The disposition of propranolol - I. Elimination during oral absorption in man. Pharmacology. 7:1972;159-168.
78. Byrne A.J., McNeil J.J., Harrison P.M., Louis W., Tonkin A.M., McLean A.J. Stable oral availability of sustained release of propranolol when co-administered with hydralazine or food: evidence implicating substrate delivery rate as a determinant of presystemic drug interactions. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 17:1984;45S-50S.
79. Wood A.J.J., Carr K., Vestal R.E., Belcher S., Wilkinson G.R., Shand D.G. Direct measurement of propranolol bioavailability during accumulation to steady-state. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 6:1978;345-350.
80. Daniel J.W. Metabolic aspects of antioxidants and preservatives. Xenobiotica. 16:1986;1073-1078.
81. Dennis M.J., Massey R.C., McWeeny D.J., Knowles M.D., Watson D. Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in UK total diets. Food Chem. Toxicol. 21:1983;569-574.
82. Larsson B.K. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked fish. Z. Lebensm.-Unters.-Forsch. 174:1982;101-108.
83. Conney A.H., Pantuck E.J., Hsiao K.C., Garland W.A., Anderson K.E., Alvares A.P., Kappas A. Enhanced phenacetin metabolism in human subjects fed charcoal-broiled beef. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 20:1976;633-642.
84. Kappas A., Alvares A.P., Anderson K.E., Pantuck E.J., Pantuck C.B., Chang R., Cooney A.H. Effects of charcoal-broiled beef on antipyrine and theophylline metabolism. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 23:1978;445-450.
85. Kall M.A., Clausen J. Dietary effect on mixed function P450 1A2 activity assayed by estimation of caffeine metabolism in man. Human Exp. Toxicol. 14:1995;801-807.
86. Anderson K.E., Schneider J., Pantuck E.J., Pantuck C.B., Mudge G.H., Welch R.M., Cooney A.H., Kappas A. Acetaminophen metabolism in subjects fed charcoal-broiled beef. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 34:1983;369-374.
87. Raaflaub J., Dubach U.C. On the pharmacokinetics of phenacetin in man. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 8:1975;261-265.
88. Traber P.G., McDonnell W.M., Wang W., Florence R. Expression and regulation of cytochrome P-4501 genes (CYP1A1 and CYP1A2) in the rat alimentary tract. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1171:1992;167-175.
89. McDonnell W.M., Scheiman J.M., Traber P.G. Induction of cytochrome P450IA genes (CYP1A) by omeprazole in the human alimentary tract. Gastroenterology. 103:1992;1509-1516.
90. Zhang Q.-Y., Wikoff J., Dunbar D., Kaminsky L. Characterization of rat small intestinal cytochrome P450 composition and inducibility. Drug Metab. Dispos. 24:1996;322-328.
91. Klippert P.J.M., Littel R.J.J., Noordhoek J. In vivo O-de-ethylation of phenacetin in 3-methylcholanthrene-pretreated rats: gut wall and liver first-pass metabolism. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 225:1983;153-157.
92. Bailey D.G., Arnold J.M.O., Spence J.D. Grapefruit juice and drugs - how significant is the interaction? Clin. Pharmacokinet. 26:1994;91-98.
93. Yee G.C., Stanley D.L., Pessa L.J., Dalla Costa T., Beltz S.E., Ruiz J., Lowenthal D.T. Effect of grapefruit juice on blood cyclosporin concentration. Lancet. 345:1995;955-956.
94. Ducharme M.P., Warbasse L.H., Edwards D.J. Disposition of intravenous and oral cyclosporine after administration with grapefruit juice. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 57:1995;485-491.
95. Proppe D.G., Hoch O.D., McLean A.J., Visser K.E. Influence of chronic ingestion of grapefruit juice on steady-state blood concentrations of cyclosporine A in renal transplant patients with stable graft function. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 39:1995;337-338.
96. Hollander A.A.M.J., van Rooiji J., Lentjes E.G.W.M., Arbouw F., van Bree J.B., Schoemaker R.C., van Es L.A., van der Woude F.J., Cohen A.F. The effect of grapefruit juice on cyclosporine and prednisone metabolism in transplant patients. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 57:1995;318-324.
97. Schubert W., Cullberg G., Edgar B., Hedner T. Inhibition of 17β-estradiol metabolism in grapefruit juice in ovariectomized women. Maturitas. 20:1995;155-163.
98. Bailey D.G., Spence J.D., Munoz C., Arnold J.M.O. Interaction of citrus juices with felodipine and nifedipine. Lancet. 377:1991;268-269.
99. Edgar B., Bailey D., Bergstrand R., Johnsson G., Regårdh C.G. Acute effects of drinking grapefruit juice on the pharmacokinetics and dynamics of felodipine - and its potential clinical relevance. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 42:1992;313-317.
100. Bailey D.G., Arnold J.M.O., Strong H.A., Munoz C., Spence J.D. Grapefruit juice-felodipine interaction: mechanism, predictability and effect of naringin. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 53:1993;637-642.
101. Bailey D.G., Arnold J.M.O., Bend J.R., Tran L.T., Spence J.D. Grapefruit juice-felodipine interaction: reproducibility and characterization with the extended release drug formulation. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 40:1995;135-140.
102. Lundahl J., Regårdh C.G., Edgar B., Johnsson G. Relationship between time of intake of grapefruit juice and its effect on pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of felodipine in healthy subjects. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 49:1995;61-67.
103. Bailey D.G., Bend J.R., Arnold J.M.O., Tran L.T., Spence J.D. Erythromycin-felodipine interaction: magnitude, mechanism, and comparison with grapefruit juice. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 60:1996;25-33.
104. Kupferschmidt H.H.T., Ha H.R., Ziegler W.H., Meier P.J., Krahenbuhl S. Interaction between grapefruit juice and midazolam in humans. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 58:1995;20-28.
105. Rashid J., McKinstry C., Renwick A.G., Dirnhuber M., Waller D.G., George C.F. Quercetin, an in vitro inhibitor of CYP3A, does not contribute to the interaction between nifedipine and grapefruit juice. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 36:1993;460-463.
106. Bailey D.G., Arnold J.M.O., Strong H.A., Munoz C., Spence J.D. Effect of grapefruit juice and naringin on nisoldipine pharmacokinetics. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 54:1993;589-594.
107. Bailey D.G., Munoz C., Arnold J.M.O., Strong H.A., Spence J.D. Grapefruit juice and naringin interaction with nitrendipine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 51:1992;156.
108. Soons P.A., Vogels B.A.P.M., Roosemalen M.C.M., Schoemaker H.C., Uchida E., Edgar B., Lundahl J., Cohen A.F., Breimer D.D. Grapefruit juice and cimetidine inhibit stereoselective metabolism of nitrendipine in humans. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 50:1991;394-403.
109. Hukkinen S.K., Varhe A., Olkkola K.T., Neuvonen P.J. Plasma concentrations of triazolam are increased by concomitant ingestion of grapefruit juice. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 58:1995;127-131.
110. Lown K.S., Bailey D.G., Fontana R.J., Janardan S.K., Adair C.H., Fortlage L.A., Brown M.B., Guo W., Watkins P.B. Grapefruit juice increases felodipine oral availability in man by decreasing intestinal CYP3A protein expression. J. Clin. Invest. 99:1997;2545-2553.
111. Benton R.E., Honig P.K., Zamani K., Cantilena L.R., Woosley R.L. Grapefruit juice alters terfenadine pharmacokinetics, resulting in prolongation of repolarization on the electrocardiogram. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 59:1996;383-388.
112. Honig P.K., Wortham D.C., Lazarev A., Cantilena L.R. Grapefruit juice alters the systemic bioavailability and cardiac repolarization of terfenadine in poor metabolizers of terfenadine. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 36:1996;345-351.
113. Monahan B.P., Ferguson C.L., Killeavy E.S., Lloyd B.K., Troy J., Cantilena L.R. Jr. Torsades de pointes occurring in association with terfenadine use. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 264:1990;2788-2790.
114. Honig P.K., Worthan D.C., Zamani K., Conner D.P., Mullin J.C., Cantilena L.R. Terfenadine-ketoconazole interaction - pharmacokinetic and electrocardiographic consequences. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 269:1993;1513-1518.
115. Pohjola-Sintonen S., Viitasalo M., Toivonen L., Neuvonen P. Intraconazole prevents terfenadine metabolism and increases risk of torsades de pointes ventricular tachycardia. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 45:1992;191-193.
116. Honig P.K., Woosldy R.L., Zamani K., Conner D.P., Cantilena L.R. Jr. Changes in the pharmacokinetics and electrocardiographic pharmacodynamics of terfenadine with concomitant administration of erythromycin. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 52:1992;231-238.
117. Merkel U., Sigusch H., Hoffman A. Grapefruit juice inhibits 7-hydroxylation of coumarin in healthy volunteers. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 46:1994;175-177.
118. Fuhr U., Klittich K., Staib A.H. Inhibitory effect of grapefruit juice and the active component naringenin on CYP1A2 dependent metabolism of caffeine in man. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 35:1993;431-436.
119. Fuhr U., Maier A., Keller A., Steinijans V.W., Sauter R., Staib A.H. Lacking effect of grapefruit juice on theophylline pharmacokinetics. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 33:1995;311-314.
120. 1 metabolism in human liver microsomes by naturally occurring flavonoids. Cancer Res. 41:1981;67-72.
121. 1 activation in human liver microsomes by naringenin and other flavonoids. Carcinogenesis. 11:1990;2275-2279.
122. Miniscalco A., Lundahl J., Regårdh C.G., Edgar B., Eriksson U.G. Inhibition of dihydropyridine metabolism in rat and human liver microsomes by flavonoids found in grapefruit juice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 261:1992;1195-1199.
123. Ha H.R., Chen J., Leuenberger P.M., Freiburghaus A.U., Follath F. In vitro inhibition of midazolam and quinidine metabolism by flavonoids. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 48:1995;367-371.
124. Schubert W., Eriksson U., Edgar B., Cullberg G., Hender T. Flavonoids in grapefruit juice inhibit the in vitro hepatic metabolism of 17β-estradiol. Eur. J. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinet. 20:1995;219-224.
125. Rashid J., McKinstry C., Renwick A.G., Dirnhuber M., Waller D.G., George C.F. Quercetin, an in vitro inhibitor of CYP3A, does not contribute to the interaction between nifedipine and grapefruit juice. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 36:1993;460-463.
126. Fuhr U., Kummert A.L. The fate of naringin in humans: a key to grapefruit juice-drug interactions? Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 58:1995;365-373.
127. Ameer B., Weintraub R.A., Johnson J.V., Yost R.A., Rouseff R.L. Flavanone absorption after naringin, hesperidin, and citrus administration. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 60:1996;34-40.
128. Edwards D.J., Bernier S.M. Naringin and naringenin are not the primary CYP3A inhibitors in grapefruit juice. Life Sci. 13:1996;1025-1030.
129. Edwards D.J., Bellevue F.H. III, Woster P.M. Identification of 6′,7′-dihydroxybergamottin, a cytochrome P450 inhibitor, in grapefruit juice. Drug Metab. Dispos. 24:1996;1287-1290.
130. Wattenberg L.W. Studies of polycyclic hydrocarbon hydroxylases of the intestine possibly related to cancer - effect of diet on benzpyrene hydroxylation activity. Cancer. 28:1971;99-102.
131. Pantuck E.J., Hsiao K.-C., Loub W.D., Wattenberg L.W., Kuntzman R., Conney A.H. Stimulatory effect of vegetables on intestinal drug metabolism in the rat. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 98:1976;278-283.
132. Hanley A.B., Heaney R.K., Fenwick G.R. The effect of feeding Brassica vegetables and intact glucosinolates on mixed-function-oxidase activity in the livers and intestines of rats. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 27:1989;289-293.
133. Vang O., Jensen H., Autrup H. Induction of cytochrome P-450IA1, IA2, IIB1, IIB2 and IIE1 by broccoli in rat liver and colon. Chem. Biol. Interact. 78:1991;85-96.
134. Pantuck E.J., Pantuck C.B., Min B.H., Wattenberg L.W., Anderson K.E., Kappas A., Conney A.H. Stimulatory effect of brussels sprouts and cabbage on human drug metabolism. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 25:1979;88-95.
135. McDannell R.E., Henderson L.A., Russell K., McLean A.E.M. The effect of Brassica vegetable consumption on caffeine metabolism in humans. Human Exp. Toxicol. 11:1992;167-172.
136. Kall M.A., Vang O., Clausen J. Effects of dietary broccoli on human in vivo drug metabolizing enzymes: evaluation of caffeine, oestrone and chlorzoxazone metabolism. Carcinogenesis. 17:1996;793-799.
137. Pantuck E.J., Pantuck C.B., Anderson K.E., Wattenberg L.W., Conney A.H., Kappas A. Effect of brussels sprouts and cabbage on drug conjugation. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 35:1984;161-169.
138. Fenwick G.R., Heaney R.K., Mullin W.J. Glucosinolates and their breakdown products in food and food plants. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 18:1983;123-201.
139. Loub W.D., Wattenberg L.W., Davis D.W. Aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase induction in rat tissues by naturally occurring indoles of cruciferous plants. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 54:1975;985-988.
140. Bradfield C.A., Bjeldanes L.F. Effect of dietary indole-3-carbinol on intestinal and hepatic monooxygenase, glutathione S-transferase and epoxide hydrolase activities in the rat. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 22:1984;977-982.
141. Bogaards J.J.P., van Ommen B., Falke H.E., Willems M.I., van Bladeren P.J. Glutathione S-transferase subunit induction patterns of brussels sprouts, allyl isothiocyanate and goitrin in rat liver and small intestinal mucosa: a new approach for the identification of inducing xenobiotics. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 28:1990;81-88.
142. Bogaards J.J.P., Verhagen H., Willems M.I., van Poppel G., van Bladeren P.J. Consumption of brussels sprouts results in elevated α-class glutathione S-transferase levels in human blood plasma. Carcinogenesis. 15:1994;1073-1075.
143. Grubbs C.J., Steele V.E., Casebolt T., Juliana M.M., Eto I., Whitaker L.M., Dragnev K.H., Kelloff G.J., Lubet R.L. Chemoprevention of chemically induced mammary carcinogenesis by indole-3-carbinol. Anticancer Res. 15:1995;709-716.
144. Bjeldanes L.F., Kim J.Y., Grose K.R., Bartholomew J.D., Bradfield C.A. Aromatic hydrocarbon responsiveness - receptor agonists generated from indole-3-carbinol in vitro and in vivo comparisons with TCDD. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88:1991;9543-9547.
145. Wortelboer H.M., Van der Linder E.C., de Truif C.A., Noordhock J., Blaaubar B.J., van Bladeren P.J., Falke F.C. Effects of indole-3-carbinol on biotransformation enzymes in the rat: in vivo changes in liver and small intestinal mucosa in comparison with primary hepatocyte cultures. Fd. Chem. Toxicol. 30:1992;589-599.
146. Zhang Y., Talalay P. Anticarcinogenic activities of organic isothiocyanates: chemistry and mechanisms. Cancer Res. 54:1994;1976s-1981s.
147. Prestera T., Zhang Y., Spencer S.R., Wilczak C., Talalay P. The electrophile counterattack response: protection against neoplasia and toxicity. Adv. Enzyme Regul. 33:1993;181-296.
148. Kim R.B., Wilkinson G.R. Watercress inhibits human CYP2E1 activity in vivo as measured by chlorzoxazone 6-hydroxylation. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 59:1996;170.
149. Chen L., Mohr S.N., Yang C.S. Decrease of plasma and urinary oxidative metabolites of acetaminophen after consumption of watercress by human volunteers. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 60:1996;651-660.
150. Caporaso N., Whitehouse J., Monkman S., Boustead C., Issaq H., Fox S., Morse M.A., Idle J.R., Chung F.-L. In vitro but not in vivo inhibition of CYP2D6 by phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC), a constituent of watercress. Pharmacogenetics. 4:1994;275-280.
151. Hecht S.S. Chemoprevention by isothiocyanates. J. Cell. Biochem. 22:1995;195-209.
152. Kelloff G.J., Boone C.W., Crowell J.A., Steale V.E., Lubet R., Sigman C. Chemopreventive drug development: perspectives and progress. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 3:1994;85-98.
153. Hecht S.S., Chung F.-L., Richie J.P. Jr., Akerkar S.A., Borukhova A., Skowronski L., Carmella S.G. Effects of watercress consumption on metabolism of a tobacco-specific lung carcinogen in smokers. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 4:1995;877-884.
154. Buiatti V., Palli D., DeCarli A., Amadori D., Avellint C., Bianchi S., Biserni R., Cipriani F., Cocco P., Giacosa A., Marubini E., Puntoni R., Vindigni C., Fraumeni J. Jr., Blot W. A case-control study of gastric cancer and diet in Italy. Inst. J. Cancer. 44:1989;611-616.
155. You W.C., Blot W.J., Chang Y.S., Ershow A., Yang Z.T., An Q., Henderson B.E., Fraumeni J.F. Jr., Wang T.-G. Allium vegetables and reduced risk of stomach cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 81:1989;162-164.
156. Brady J.F., Ishizaki H., Fukuto J.M., Lin M.C., Fadel A., Gapac J.M., Yang C.S. Inhibition of cytochrome P-450 2E1 by diallyl sulfide and its metabolites. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 4:1991;642-647.
157. Kwak M.K., Kim S.G., Kwak J.Y., Novak R.F., Kim N.D. Inhibition of cytochrome P4502E1 expression by organosulfur compounds allylsulfide, allylmercaptan and allylmethylsulfide in rats. Biochem. Pharmacol. 47:1994;531-539.
158. Reicks M.M., Crankshaw D.L. Modulation of rat hepatic cytochrome P-450 activity by garlic organosulfur compounds. Nutr. Cancer. 25:1996;241-248.
159. Kwak M.K., Kim S.G., Kim N.D. Effects of garlic oil on rat hepatic P4502E1 expression. Xenobiotica. 25:1995;1021-1029.
160. Haber D., Siess M.-H., de Waziers I., Beaune P., Suschetet M. Modification of hepatic drug-metabolizing enzymes in rats fed naturally occurring allyl sulphides. Xenobiotica. 24:1994;169-182.
161. Dragnev K.H., Nims R.W., Lubet R.A. The chemopreventive agent diallyl sulfide: a structurally atypical phenobarbital-type inducer. Biochem. Pharmacol. 50:1995;2099-2104.
162. Hatono S., Jimenez A., Wargovich M.J. Chemopreventive effect of S-allylcysteine and its relationship to the detoxification enzyme glutathione S-transferase. Carcinogenesis. 17:1996;1041-1044.
163. G.R. Wilkinson, (1997) unpublished data.
164. Gwilt P.R., Lear C.L., Tempero M.A., Birt D.D., Grandjean A.C., Ruddon R.W., Nagel D.L. The effect of garlic extract on human metabolism of acetaminophen. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 3:1994;155-160.
165. Yang C.S., Brady J.F., Hong J.-Y. Dietary effects on cytochromes P450, xenobiotic metabolism, and toxicity. FASEB J. 6:1992;737-744.
166. Trang J.M., Blanchard J., Conrad K.A., Harrison G.G. The effect of vitamin C on the pharmacokinetics of caffeine in elderly men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 35:1982;487-494.
167. Holloway D.E., Hutton S.W., Peterson F.J., Duane W.C. Lack of effect of subclinical ascorbic acid deficiency upon antipyrine metabolism in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 35:1982;917-924.
168. Smithard D.J., Langman M.J.S. The effect of vitamin supplementation upon antipyrine metabolism in the elderly. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 5:1978;181-185.
169. Ginter E., Vejmolova J. Vitamin C-status and pharmacokinetic profile of antipyrine in man. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 12:1981;256-258.
170. Wilson J.T., Van Boxtel C.J., Alvan G., Sjoqvist F. Failure of vitamin C to affect the pharmacokinetic profile of antipyrine in man. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 16:1976;265-270.
171. Houston J.B. Effect of vitamin C supplement on antipyrine disposition in man. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 4:1977;236-239.
172. Back D.J., Breckenridge A.M., MacIver M., L'E Orme M., Purba H., Rowe Ph.H. Interaction of ethinyloestradiol with ascorbic acid in man. Br. Med. J. 282:1981;1516.
173. Briggs M.H. Megadose vitamin C and metabolic effects of the pill. Br. Med. J. 283:1981;1547.
174. Jensen O.N., Olesen O.V. Subnormal serum folate due to anticonvulsive therapy. Arch. Neurol. 22:1970;181-182.
175. Kutt H., Winters W., McDowell F.H. Depression of phenytoin parahydroxylation by antituberculosis chemotherapy. Neurology. 16:1966;594-602.
176. Baylis E.M., Crowley J.M., Preece J.M., Sylvester P.E., Marks V. Influence of folic acid on blood phenytoin levels. Lancet. 1:1971;62-64.
177. Furlanut M., Benetello P., Avogaro A., Dainese R. Effects of folic acid on phenytoin kinetics in healthy subjects. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 24:1978;294-297.
178. Berg M.J., Fischer L.J., Rivey M.P., Vern B.A., Schottelius D.D. Phenytoin and folic acid interaction: a preliminary report. Ther. Drug Monit. 5:1983;389-394.
179. Maxwell J.D., Hunger J., Stewart D.A., Ardeman S., Williams R. Folate deficiency after anticonvulsant drugs: an effect of hepatic enzyme induction? Br. Med. J. 29:1972;297-299.
180. Hansson O., Sillanpaa M. Pyridoxine and serum concentration of phenytoin and phenobarbitone. Lancet. 1:1976;256.
181. Duvoisin R.C., Yahr M.D., Coté L.D. Pyridoxine reversal of L-dopa effects in Parkinsonism. Trans. Am. Neurol. Assoc. 94:1969;81-84.
182. Hus T.H., Bianchine J.R., Preziosi T.J., Messiha F.S. Effect of pyridoxine on levodopa metabolism in normal and Parkinsonian subjects. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 143:1973;578-581.
183. Leon A.S., Spiegel H.E., Thomas G., Abrams W.B. Pyridoxine antagonism of levodopa in Parkinsonism. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 218:1971;1924-1927.
184. Surh Y.-J., Lee S.S. Capsaicin, a double-edged sword: toxicity, metabolism and chemopreventive potential. Life Sci. 56:1995;1845-1855.
185. Iwana M., Tojima T., Iitoi Y., Takahashi N., Kanke Y. Effects of capsaicin and ethanol on hepatic drug-metabolizing enzymes in rat. Int. J. Vit. Nutr. Res. 60:1989;100-103.
186. Atal C.K., Dubey R.K., Singh J. Biochemical basis of enhanced drug bioavailability by piperine. Evidence that piperine is a potent inhibitor of drug metabolism. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 285:1984;258-262.
187. Singh J., Dubey R.K., Atal C.K. Piperine-mediated inhibition of glucuronidation activity in isolated epithelial cells of the guinea-pig small intestine: evidence that piperine lowers the endogenous UDP-glucuronic acid content. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 236:1986;488-493.
188. Kang M.H., Won S.M., Park S.S., Kim S.G., Novak R.F., Kim N.D. Piperine effects on the expression of P4502E1, P4502B and P4501A in rat. Xenobiotica. 24:1994;1195-1204.
189. Bano G., Amla V., Raina R.K., Johri R.K., Zutshi U., Chopra C.L. The effect of piperine on kinetics of phenytoin in healthy volunteers. Planta Med. 53:1984;568-569.
190. Bano G., Raina R.K., Zutshi U., Bedi K.L., Johri R.K., Sharma S.C. Effects of piperine on bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of propranolol and theophylline in healthy volunteers. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 41:1991;615-617.
191. Darbar D., Dell'Orto S., Mörike K., Wilkinson G.R., Roden D. Dietary salt increases first-pass elimination of oral quinidine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 61:1997;292-300.
192. Castañeda-Hernandez G., Hoyo-Vadillo C., Palma-Aquirre J.A., Flores-Murrieta F.J. Pharmacokinetics of oral nifedipine in different populations. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 33:1993;140-145.
193. Ahsan C.H., Renwick A.G., Macklin B., Challenor V.F., Waller D.G., George C.F. Ethnic differences in the pharmacokinetics of oral nifedipine. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 31:1991;399-403.
194. Loi C.-M., Vestal R.E. Drug metabolism in the elderly. Pharmacol. Ther. 36:1988;131-149.
195. R.E. Vestal, B.J. Cusack, Pharmacology of ageing, in: E.L. Schneider, J.W. Rowe (Eds.), Handbook of the Biology of Ageing, third ed., Academic Press, New York 1990, pp. 349-383.
196. Durnas C., Loi C.-M., Cusack B.J. Hepatic drug metabolism and aging. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 19:1990;359-389.
197. M.D. Mayersohn, Special pharmacokinetic considerations in the elderly, in: W.E. Evans, J.J. Schentag, W.J. Jusko (Eds.), Applied Pharmacokinetics, Principles of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, third ed., Applied Therapeutics, Vancouver, WA 1992.
198. Kato R., Vassenelli P., Frontina G., Chiesara E. Variation in the activity of liver microsomal drug-metabolizing enzymes in rats in relation to age. Biochem. Pharmacol. 13:1964;1037-1051.
199. Schmucker D.L., Wang R.K. Age-related changes in liver drug-metabolizing enzymes. Exp. Gerontol. 15:1980;321-329.
200. Van Bezooijen C.F.A. Influence of age-related changes in rodent liver morphology and physiology on drug metabolism. Mech. Ageing Dev. 25:1984;1-22.
201. D.L. Schmucker, Is the rat a suitable model for ageing research? in: K.W. Woodhouse, C. Yelland, O.F.W. James (Eds.), The Liver: Metabolism and Aging. Eurage, Rijswijk, The Netherlands, 1989, pp. 3-18.
202. Brodie M.J., Boobis A.R., Bulpitt C.J., Davies D.S. Influence of liver disease and environmental factors on hepatic monooxygenase activity in vitro. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 20:1981;39-46.
203. Woodhouse K.W., Mutch E., Williams F.M., Rawlins M.D., James O.F.W. The effect of age on pathways of drug metabolism in human liver. Age Ageing. 13:1984;328-334.
204. Schmucker D.L., Woodhouse K.W., Wang R.K., Wynne H., James O.F., McManus M., Kremers P. Effects of age and gender on in vitro properties of human liver microsomal monooxygenases. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 48:1990;365-374.
205. Shimada T., Yamazaki H., Mimura M., Inui Y., Guengerich F.P. Interindividual variations in human liver cytochrome P-450 enzymes involved in the oxidation of drugs, carcinogens and toxic chemicals: studies with liver microsomes of 30 Japanese and 30 Caucasians. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 270:1994;414-423.
206. George J., Byth K., Farrell G.C. Age but not gender selectively affects expression of individual cytochrome P-450 proteins in humans liver. Biochem. Pharmacol. 50:1995;727-730.
207. Hunt C.M., Strater S., Stave G.M. Effect of normal aging on the activity of human hepatic cytochrome P450IIE1. Biochem. Pharmacol. 40:1990;1666-1669.
208. Hunt C.M., Westerkam W.R., Stave G.M. Effect of age and gender on the activity of human hepatic CYP3A. Biochem. Pharmacol. 44:1992;275-283.
209. Herd B., Wynne H., Wright P., James O., Woodhouse K. The effect of age on glucuronidation and sulphation of paracetamol by human liver fractions. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 32:1991;768-770.
210. Nation R.L., Vine J., Triggs E.J., Learoyd B. Plasma level of chlormethiazole and two metabolites after oral administration to young and aged human subjects. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 12:1977;137-145.
211. Cusack B., O'Malley K., Lavan J., Noel J., Kelly J.G. Protein binding and disposition of lignocaine in the elderly. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 29:1985;323-329.
212. Kelly J.G., McGarry K., O'Malley K., O'Brien E.T. Bioavailability of labetalol increases with age. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 14:1982;304-305.
213. Storstein L., Larsen A., Midtbo K., Saevareid L. Pharmacokinetics of calcium blockers in patients with renal insufficiency and in geriatric patients. Acta Med. Scand. 681:1984;25-30.
214. Sasaki M., Tateishi T., Ebihara A. The effects of age and gender on the stereoselective pharmacokinetics of verapamil. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 54:1993;278-285.
215. Castleden C.M., George C.F. The effect of ageing on the hepatic clearance of propranolol. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 7:1979;49-54.
216. Barber H.E., Hawksworth G.M., Petrie J.C., Rigby J.W., Robb O.J., Scott A.K. Pharmacokinetics of atenolol and propranolol in young and elderly subjects. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 11:1981;118P-119P.
217. Vestal R.E., Wood A.J.J., Branch R.A., Shand D.G., Wilkinson G.R. Effects of age and cigarette smoking on the disposition of propranolol in man. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 26:1979;8-15.
218. Colangelo P.M., Blouin R.A., Steinmetz J.E., McNamara P.J., DeMaria A.N., Wedlund P.J. Age and propranolol stereoselective disposition in humans. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 51:1992;489-494.
219. Abernethy D.R., Greenblatt D.J., Shader R.I. Imipramine and desipramine disposition in the elderly. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 232:1985;183-188.
220. Schulz P., Turner-Tamiyasu K., Smith G., Giacomini K.M., Blaschke T.F. Amitriptyline disposition in young and elderly normal men. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 33:1983;360-366.
221. Nation R.L., Vine J., Triggs E.J., Learoyd B. Plasma level of chlormethiazole and two metabolites after oral administration to young and aged human subjects. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 12:1977;137-145.
222. Baillie S.P., Bateman D.N., Coates P.E., Woodhouse K.W. Age and the pharmacokinetics of morphine. Age Ageing. 18:1989;258-262.
223. Herman R.J., McAllister C.B., Branch R.A., Wilkinson G.R. Effects of age on meperidine disposition. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 37:1985;19-24.
224. Mattila M.J., Jussila J., Takki S. Drug absorption in patients with intestinal villous atrophy. Drug Res. 23:1973;583-585.
225. Parsons R.L., Hossack G., Paddock G. The absorption of antibiotics in adult patients with coeliac disease. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1:1975;39-50.
226. Parsons R.L., Kaye C.M., Raymond K., Trounce J.R., Turner P. Absorption of propranolol and practolol in coeliac disease. Gut. 17:1976;139-143.
227. Kitis G., Lucas M.L., Bishop H., Sargent A., Schneider R.E., Blair J.A., Allan R.N. Altered jejunal surface pH in coeliac disease: its effect on propranolol and folic acid absorption. Clin. Sci. 63:1982;373-380.
228. Sandle G.I., Ward A., Rawlins M.D., Record C.O. Propranolol absorption in untreated coeliac disease. Clin. Sci. 63:1982;81-85.
229. Schneider R.E., Babb J., Bishop H., Mitchard M., Hoare A.M. Plasma levels of propranolol in treated patients with coeliac disease and patients with Crohn's disease. Br. Med. J. 2:1976;794-795.
230. Paterson J.W., Conolly M.E., Dollery C.T. The pharmacodynamics and metabolism of propranolol in man. Pharmacol. Clin. 2:1970;127-133.
231. Cooper B.T., Cooke W.T. Propranolol absorption in Crohn's disease and coeliac disease. Br. Med. J. 2:1976;1135.
232. Schneider R.E., Babb J., Bishop H., Hoare A.M., Hawkins C.F. Plasma propranolol levels in coeliac disease and Crohn's disease. Br. Med. J. 2:1976;1324.
233. George C.F., Castleden M. Propranolol absorption. Br. Med. J. 1:1997;47.
234. Parsons R.L., Trounce J.R., Kaye C.M. Propranolol absorption in Crohn's disease and coeliac disease. Br. Med. J. 1:1977;103.
235. Cooper B.T., Cooke W.T., Lucas M.L., Blair J.A. Plasma propranolol levels in Crohn's disease and coeliac disease. Br. Med. J. 1:1977;443-444.
236. Schneider R.E., Hawkins C.F. Plasma propranolol levels in Crohn's disease and coeliac disease. Br. Med. J. 1:1977;444.
237. Lang C.C., Brown R.M., Kinirons M.T., Deathridge M.-A., Guengerich F.P., Kelleher D., O'Briain D.S., Ghishan F.K., Wood A.J.J. Decreased intestinal CYP3A in celiac disease: reversal after successful gluten-free diet: a potential source of interindividual variability in first-pass drug metabolism. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 59:1996;41-46.
238. Howden C.W., Birnie G.G., Brodie M.J. Drug metabolism in liver disease. Pharmacol. Ther. 40:1989;439-474.
239. McLean A.J., Morgan D.J. Clinical pharmacokinetics in patients with liver disease. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 21:1991;42-69.
240. Morgan D.J., McLean A.J. Clinical pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations in patients with liver disease. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 29:1995;370-391.
241. K.L.R. Brouwer, G.E. Dukes, J.R. Powell, Influence of liver function on drug disposition, in: W.E. Evans, J.J. Schentag, W.J. Jusko (Eds.), Applied Pharmacokinetics, Principles of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, third ed., Applied Therapeutics, Vancouver, WA 1992.
242. Bass N.M., Williams R.L. Guide to drug dosage in hepatic disease. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 15:1988;396-420.
243. Arns P.A., Branch R.A. Prescribing for patients with liver disease. Baillière's Clin. Gastroenterol. 3:1989;109-130.
244. McLean A., du Souich P., Gibaldi M. Noninvasive kinetic approach to the estimation of total hepatic blood flow and shunting in chronic liver disease - a hypothesis. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 25:1979;161-166.
245. Hrdina P.D., Lapierre Y.D., Koranyl E.K. Altered amitriptyline kinetics in a depressed patient with porto-caval anastomosis. Can. J. Psychiatry. 30:1985;111-113.
246. Porchet H., Bircher J. Noninvasive assessment of portal-systemic shunting: evaluation of a method to investigate systemic availability of oral glyceryl trinitrate by digital plethysmography. Gastroenterology. 82:1982;629-637.
247. Hansten V., Eika C., Birkeland S. Ergotism in a patient with a portosystemic shunt. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 16:1979;425-426.
248. Giacomini K.M., Giacomini J.C., Gibson T.P., Levy G. Propoxyphene and norpropoxyphene plasma concentrations after oral propoxyphene in cirrhotic patients with and without surgically constructed portacaval shunt. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 28:1980;417-4247.
249. Schoene B., Fleischmann R.A., Reemer H., von Oldershausen H.F. Determination of drug metabolizing enzymes in needle biopsies of human liver. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 4:1972;65-73.
250. Hoensch H., Hartmann F., Schomerus H., Bieck P., Dölle W. Monooxygenase enzyme activity in alcoholics with varying degrees of liver damage. Gut. 20:1979;666-672.
251. Brodie M.J., Boobis A.R., Bulpitt C.J., Davies D.S. Influence of liver disease and environmental factors of hepatic monooxygenase activity in vitro. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 20:1981;39-46.
252. Farrell G.C., Cooksley W.G.E., Powell L.W. Drug metabolism in liver disease: activity of hepatic microsomal metabolizing enzymes. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 26:1979;483-492.
253. Guengerich F.P., Turvy C.G. Comparison of levels of several human microsomal cytochrome P-450 enzymes and epoxide hydrolase in normal and disease states using immunochemical analysis of surgical liver samples. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 256:1991;1189-1194.
254. George J., Murray M., Byth K., Farrell G.C. Differential alterations of cytochrome P450 proteins in livers from patients with severe chronic liver disease. Hepatology. 21:1995;120-128.
255. Kratz F. Coumarin-7-hydroxylase activity in microsomes from needle biopsies of normal and diseased human liver. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 10:1976;133-137.
256. Meyer B., Luo H., Bargetzi M., Renner E.L., Stalder G.A. Quantitation of intrinsic drug-metabolizing capacity in human liver biopsy specimens: support for the intact-hepatocyte theory. Hepatology. 13:1991;475-481.
257. George J., Liddle C., Murray M., Byth K., Farrell G.C. Pre-translational regulation of cytochrome P450 genes is responsible for disease-specific changes of individual P450 enzymes among patients with cirrhosis. Biochem. Pharmacol. 49:1995;873-881.
258. Pacifici G.M., Viani A., Franchi M., Santerini S., Temellini A., Giliani L., Carrai M. Conjugation pathways in liver disease. Br. J. Pharmacol. 30:1990;427-435.
259. Hoyumpa A., Schenker S. Is glucuronidation truly preserved in patients with liver disease? Hepatology. 13:1991;786-795.
260. Kroemer H.K., Klotz U. Glucuronidation of drugs - a re-evaluation of the pharmacological significance of the conjugates and modulating factors. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 23:1992;292-310.
261. Pentikäinen P.J. P.J. Neuvonen, K.-G. Jostell, Pharmacokinetics of chlormethiazole in healthy volunteers and patients with cirrhosis of the liver. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 17:1980;275-284.
262. Bergstrand R.H., Wang T., Roden D.M., Avant G.R., Sutton W.W., Siddoway L.A., Wolfenden H., Woosley R.L., Wilkinson G.R., Wood A.J.J. Encainide disposition in patients with chronic cirrhosis. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 40:1986;148-154.
263. Wensing G., Mönig H., Ohnhaus E.E., Hoensch H.P. Pharmacokinetics of encainide in patients with cirrhosis. Cardiovasc. Drugs Ther. 5:1991;733-740.
264. Homeida M., Jackson L., Roberts C.J. Decreased first-pass metabolism of labetalol in chronic liver disease. Br. Med. J. 2:1978;1048-1050.
265. Neal E.A., Meffin P.J., Gregory P.B., Blaschke T.F. Enhanced bioavailability and decreased clearance of analgesics in patients with cirrhosis. Gastroenterology. 77:1979;96-102.
266. Pond S.M., Tong T., Benowitz N.L., Jacob P. Enhanced bioavailability of pethidine and pentazocine in patients with cirrhosis of the liver. Aust. N.Z. J. Med. 10:1980;515-519.
267. Ponds S.M., Tong T., Benowitz N.L., Jacob P., Rigod J. Presystemic metabolism of meperidine to normeperidine in normal and cirrhotic subjects. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 30:1981;183-188.
268. Regåardh C.-G., Jordö L., Ervik M., Lundborg P., Olsson R., Rönn O. Pharmacokinetics of metoprolol in patients with hepatic cirrhosis. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 6:1981;375-388.
269. Pentikäinen P.J., Välisalmi L., Himberg J.-J., Crevoisier C. Pharmacokinetics of midazolam following intravenous and oral administration in patients with chronic liver disease and in healthy subjects. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 29:1989;272-277.
270. Hasselström J., Eriksson S., Persson A., Rane A., Svensson J.O., Säwe J. The metabolism and bioavailability of morphine in patients with severe liver cirrhosis. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 29:1990;289-297.
271. Kleinbloesem C.H., van Harten J., Wilson J.P.H., Danhof M., van Brummelen P., Breimer D.D. Nifedipine: kinetics and hemodynamic effects in patients with liver cirrhosis after intravenous and oral administration. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 40:1986;21-28.
272. Dylewicz P., Kirch W., Santos S.R., Hutt H.J., Mönig H., Ohnhaus E.E. Bioavailability and elimination of nitrendipine in liver disease. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 32:1987;563-568.
273. van Harten J., van Brummelen P., Wilson J.H.P., Lodewijks M.Th.M., Breimer D.D. Nisoldipine: kinetics and effects on blood pressure and heart rate in patients with liver cirrhosis after intravenous and oral administration. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 34:1988;387-394.
274. Rames A., Poirier J.-M., LeCoz F., Midavaine M., Lecocq B., Grange J.-D., Poupon R., Cheymol G., Jaillon P. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous and oral pentoxifylline in healthy volunteers and in cirrhotic patients. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 47:1990;354-359.
275. Wood A.J.J., Kornhauser D.M., Wilkinson G.R., Shand D.G., Branch R.A. The influence of cirrhosis on steady-state blood concentrations of unbound propranolol after oral administration. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 3:1978;478-487.
276. Somogyi A., Albrecht M., Kliems G., Schäfer K., Eichelbaum M. Pharmacokinetics, bioavailability and ECG response of verapamil in patients with liver cirrhosis. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 12:1981;51-60.
277. Razak T.A., McNeil J.J., Sewell R.B., Drummer O.H., Smallwood R.A., Conway E.L., Louis W.J. The effect of hepatic cirrhosis on the pharmacokinetics and blood pressure response to nicardipine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 47:1990;463-469.
278. Gengo F.M., Fagan S.C., Krol G., Bernhard H. Nimodipine disposition and haemodynamic effects in patients with cirrhosis and age-matched controls. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 23:1987;47-53.
279. Lasseter K.C., Shamblen E.C., Murdoch A.A., Burkholder D.E., Krol G.J., Taylor R.J., Vanov S.K. Steady-state pharmacokinetics of nitrendipine in hepatic insufficiency. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 6:1984;S977-S981.
280. Zilly W., Ramsch K.D., Gothe M. Disposition of nitrendipine in patients with chronic liver diseases. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 12:1988;S175-S177.
281. Nightingale S.L. Warning issued on nonsedating antihistamines terfenadine and astemizole. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 268:1992;705.
282. Ohnishi A., Tsuboi Y., Ishizaki T., Kubota K., Ohno T., Yoshida H., Kanezaki A., Tanaka T. Kinetics and dynamics of enalapril in patients with liver cirrhosis. Clin. Pharmacol. 45:1989;657-665.
283. Milavetz G., Vaughan L.M., Weinberger M.M. Stability of theophylline elimination rate. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 41:1987;388-391.
284. Alvares A.P., Kappas A., Eiseman J.L., Anderson K.E., Pantuck E.J., Hsiao K.-C., Garland W.A., Conney A.H. Intraindividual variation in drug disposition. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 26:1979;407-419.
285. Lemmer B., Bruguerolle B. Chronopharmacokinetics - are they clinically relevant? Clin. Pharmacokinet. 26:1994;419-427.