Light impurities (O, H, C, N) in silicon

Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science

Volumn 2, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 40-47

  Newman, Ronald C ^a   Jones, Robert ^b  

^a IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF EXETER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

CZ Czochralski; DLTS deep level transient spectroscopy; ENDOR electron nuclear double resonance; EPR electron paramagnetic resonance; I atom self interstitial; STD shallow thermal donor; TD thermal donor

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040054252     PISSN: 13590286     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1359-0286(97)80103-9     Document Type: Article

References (54)

1. Ab initio calculations predict an activation energy of 2.5 eV for oxygen diffusion jumps, confirming earlier calculations by other workers. Ramamoorthy M, Pantelides ST. Coupled-barrier diffusion: the case of oxygen in silicon. Phys Rev Lett. 76:1996;267-270. of special interest.
2. The rates of oxygen loss from solution and thermal donor formation are shown to be correlated to T ≤ 500°C. The kinetics of formation of large oxygen clusters are described self-consistently by rapid dimer formation and dissociation of clusters with dimer emission. McQuaid SA, Binns MJ, Londons CS, Tucker JH, Brown AR, Newman RC. Oxygen loss during TD formation in CZ-Si: new insights into oxygen diffusion mechanisms. J Appl Phys. 77:1995;1427-1442. of outstanding interest.
3. A review is given of oxygen diffusion, including discussion of possible enhancements due to vacancies, self-interstitials and the known enhancement due to hydrogen. Newman RC. The initial stages of oxygen aggregation in silicon: dimers, hydrogen and self-interstitials. Dordrecht Jones R. Early Stages of Oxygen Precipitation in Silicon. 17:1996;19-39 Kluwer Academic Press, The Netherlands. of special interest.
4. This is the latest review of the principal properties of O, H, C and N impurities in silicon. Newman RC. Light impurities and their interactions in silicon. Mater Sci Eng B. 36:1996;1-12. of special interest.
5. Newman RC, Binns MJ, Londos CA, McQuaid SA, Tucker JH. Oxygen aggregation phenomena in silicon. Solid State Phenomena. 47-48:1996;247-258.
6. McQuaid SA, Newman RC, Muñoz E. The role of rapidly diffusing dimers in oxygen loss and the association of thermal donors with small oxygen clusters. Mater Sci Eng B. 36:1996;171-174.
7. The formation of large oxygen clusters is demonstrated according to modeling with the assumption of rapid dimer diffusion. McQuaid SA, Newman RC, Muñoz E. Models of oxygen loss and thermal donor formation in silicon by the clustering of rapidly diffusing dimers. Mater Sci Forum. 196-201:1995;1309-1314. of special interest.
8. McQuaid SA, Newman RC. Kinetics of oxygen loss and thermal donor formation in silicon: the rapid diffusion of oxygen clusters. Dordrecht Jones R. Early Stages of Oxygen Precipitation in Silicon. 17:1996;433-440 The Netherlands, Kluwer Academic Press. [NATO ASI Series].
9. This is a review of ab initio calculations relating to oxygen complexes with other light impurities, including the analysis of oxygen dimer diffusion. Ewels CP, Jones R, Öberg S. Oxygen-carbon, oxygen-nitrogen and oxygen-dimer defects in silicon. Dordrecht Jones R. Early Stages of Oxygen Precipitation in Silicon. 17:1996;141-162 Kluwer Academic Press, The Netherlands. of outstanding interest.
10. Chadi DJ. Core structure of TDs in Si. Ab initio calculations using the latest techniques imply that thermal donors do not incorporate self-interstitials or vacancies but involve at least three oxygen atoms including a central over-coordinated atom, leading to bistability. There is a strong attraction of N, C, B and Al atoms to the core. Phys Rev Lett. 77:1996;861-864. of special interest.
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12. Lindström JL, Hallberg T. Vibrational infrared absorption bands related to the thermal donors in silicon. J Appl Phys. 77:1995;2684-2690.
13. This is the first paper to assign signatures of the electrically inactive states of first two thermal donors TD1 and TD2. Hallberg T, Lindström JL. The bistability of the thermal donors in silicon. Appl Phys Lett. 68:1996;3458-3460. of special interest.
14. Hallberg T, Lindström JL. Infrared vibrational bands related to the thermal donors in silicon. J Appl Phys. 79:1996;7570-7581.
15. This is the first review of the infrared vibrational absorption from small oxygen clusters with a listing of possible assignments to particular centers. Some aspects of the interpretatios lie outside previous mainstream thinking. Lindström JL, Hallberg T. Infrared studies of the early stages of oxygen clustering in silicon. Dordrecht Jones R. Early Stages of Oxygen Precipitation in Silicon. 17:1996;41-60 Kluwer Academic Press, The Netherlands. of outstanding interest.
16. Hallberg T, Lindström JL. Activation energies for the formation of oxygen clusters related to the thermal donors in silicon. Mater Sci Eng B. 36:1996;13-15.
17. Lindström JL, Hallberg T. Thermal donor formation in aluminum doped silicon. Mater Sci Eng B. 36:1996;150-153.
18. A review is given of the trivalent or over coordinated state of oxygen and its relationship to the diffusion of oxygen defects and thermal donors. Analogous structures for nitrogen defects are also described, together with a model of the H-related shallow thermal donor. Deák P. The role of trivalent oxygen in electrically active complexes. Dordrecht Jones R. Early Stages of Oxygen Precipitation in Silicon. 17:1996;163-177 Kluwer Academic Press, The Netherlands. of special interest.
19. Stein HJ, Hahn S. Hydrogen incorporation and hydrogen-enhanced thermal donor formation in silicon. J Appl Phys. 75:1994;3477-3484.
20. Measurements provide strong evidence for the interaction of hydrogen with oxygen, revealed by isotopic shifts of IR vibrational absorption lines. Markevich VP, Suezawa M, Sumino K. Optical absorption due to vibration of hydrogen-oxygen pairs in silicon. Mater Sci Forum. 196-201:1995;915-920. of special interest.
21. This is the first definitive spectroscopic study reporting the rates of isolated hydrogen diffusion jumps at low temperatures. Gorelkinskii YV, Nevinnyi NN. EPR of interstitial hydrogen in silicon: uniaxial stress experiments. Mater Sci Eng B. 36:1996;133-137. of special interest.
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24. Estreicher SK, Park YK, Fedders PA. Hydrogen-oxygen interactions in silicon. Dordrecht Jones R. Early stages of oxygen precipitation in silicon. 17:1996;179-195 Kluwer Academic Press, The Netherlands. [NATO ASI Series].
25. Seager CH, Anderson RA, Estreicher SK. Comment on inverted order of acceptor and donor levels of monatomic hydrogen in silicon. Phys Rev Lett. 74:1995;4565.
26. 2 complex in Si. Phys Rev B. 51:1995;9612-9621. of special interest.
27. Höhne M, Juda U, Martynov, Yu V, Gregorkiewicz T, Ammerlaan CAJ, Vlasenko LS. EPR spectroscopy of platinum-hydrogen complexes in silicon. Phys Rev B. 49:1994;13423-13429.
28. Jost W, Weber J, Lemke H. Hydrogen-cobalt complexes in p-type silicon. Semicond Sci Technol. 11:1996;525-530.
29. Jost W, Weber J, Lemke H. Hydrogen-induced defects in cobalt-doped n-type silicon. Semicond Sci Technol. 11:1996;22-26.
30. Wet etching introduces hydrogen into Si at low temperatures, leading to the formation of H-complexes that are unstable at the higher temperatures used in other methods for introducing hydrogen. Sveinbjörnsson EÖ, Engstöm O. Reaction kinetics of hydrogen-gold complexes in silicon. Phys Rev B. 52:1995;4884-4895. of special interest.
31. 2 complexes in Si. Phys Rev Lett. 75:1995;2734-2737.
32. Infrared absorption lines are assigned to the vibrations of H(D) atoms complexed with vacancies and self-interstitials, leading to the prospect of exploring the properties of highly mobile or reactive defects such as di-interstitials. Bech Nielsen B, Hoffmann L, Budde M, Jones R, Goss J, Öberg S. H interacting with intrinsic defects in Si. Mater Sci Forum. 196-201:1995;933-938. of special interest.
33. Park YK, Estreicher SK, Myers CW, Fedders PA. Molecular-dynamics study of the vacancy and vacancy-hydrogen interactions in silicon. Phys Rev B. 52:1995;1718-1723.
34. Van de Walle CG, Neugebauer J. Hydrogen interactions with self-interstitials in silicon. Phys Rev B. 52:1995;14320-14323.
35. Zevenbergen IS, Gregorkiewicz T, Ammerlaan CAJ. Electron paramagnetic resonance identification of hydrogen-passivated sulfur centers in silicon. Phys Rev B. 52:1995;1144-1151.
36. Torres VJB, Öberg S, Jones R. Theory of hydrogen single passivated substitutional sulphur double donors in silicon. Ammerlaan CAJ, Pajot B. International Conference on Shallow Donor Defects: 1996 Jul 17-19; Amsterdam. 1997;501-504 World Scientific Singapore. IC-SLCS-7.
37. ENDOR measurements of the NL10 EPR spectrum show for the first time the presence of a hydrogen atom in the defect responsible, distinguishing it from a second defect that is present in Al-doped silicon. Martynov Yu V, Gregorkiewicz T, Ammerlaan CAJ. Role of hydrogen in the formation and structure of the Si-NL10 thermal donor. Phys Rev Lett. 74:1995;2030-2033. of outstanding interest.
38. Martynov Yu V, Gregorkiewicz T, Ammerlaan CAJ. ENDOR identification of a hydrogen-passivated thermal donor. Mater Sci Forum. 196-201:1995;849-854.
39. Isotopic shifts of electronic transitions of STDs in undoped Si are present when H is replaced by D linking these centers to the NL10(H) EPR spectrum. Newman RC, Tucker JH, Semaltianos NG, Lightowlers EC, Gregorkiewicz T, Zevenbergen IS, Ammerlaan CAJ. Infrared absorption in silicon from shallow thermal donors incorporating hydrogen and a link to the NL10 paramagnetic resonance spectrum. Phys Rev B. 54:1996;6803-6806. of special interest.
40. The passivation of the gate interface states in NMOS transistors is more stable when deuterium rather than hydrogen is used. Lyding JW, Hess K, Kizilyalli C. Reduction of hot electron degradation in metal oxide semiconductor transistors by deuterium processing. Appl Phys Lett. 68:1996;2526-2528. of outstanding interest.
41. Murukami K, Fukata N, Sasaki S, Ishioka K, Kitajima M, Fujimura S, Kikuchi JK, Haneda H. Formation of hydrogen molecules in n-type silicon. Jpn J Appl Phys. 35:1996;L1069-L1071.
42. Hydrogen molecules in silicon are detected for the first time by Raman spectroscopy. Fukata N, Sasaki S, Murakami K, Ishiok K, Kitajima M, Fujimura S, Kikuchi JK. Hydrogen molecules in crystalline silicon treated with atomic hydrogen. Phys Rev Lett. 77:1996;3161-3164. of outstanding interest.
43. This is a review of hydrogen passivated electronic states of various defects incorporating O, C and N that are detected by photoluminescence. The presence of H in the defects is confirmed by isotopic analysis. The surprising find is that H is almost invariably present. Lightowlers EC. Hydrogen incorporation and interaction with impurities and defects in silicon investigated by photoluminesence spectroscopy. Mater Sci Forum. 196-201:1995;817-824. of special interest.
44. A C-:H pair bound to a C interstitial is stable to 450-600°C and is formed by anneals of CZ Si. There are prospects that the centers could be detected by DLTS, yielding quantitative measurements of the concentration of self-interstitials generated by the O aggregation. Safonov AN, Lightowlers EC, Davies G, Leary P, Jones R, Öberg S. Interstitial-carbon hydrogen interaction in silicon. Phys Rev Lett. 77:1996;4812-4815. of special interest.
45. s-O complexes in Si. Dordrecht Jones R. Early Stages of Oxygen Precipitation in Silicon. 17:1996;389-396 Kluwer Academic Press, The Netherlands. of special interest.
46. Shirakawa Y, Yamada-Kaneta H, Morti H. Annealing behaviour of carbon-oxygen complexes in silicon crystals observed by low temperature infrared absorption. J Appl Phys. 77:1995;41-46.
47. Murin LI, Markevich YP. Effect of carbon and thermal donor formation in silicon. Mater Sci Forum. 196-200:1995;1315-1320.
48. Kamiura Y, Maeda T, Yamashita Y, Hahimoto F. Anomalous fast annihilation of thermal donors in carbon rich silicon. Mater Sci Forum. 196-201:1995;1321-1326.
49. Zhu J, Diaz del Rubia T, Yang LH, Mailhiot C, Gilmer GH. Ab initio pseudopotential calculations of B diffusion and pairing in Si. Phys Rev B. 54:1996;4741-4747.
50. It is shown that self-interstitials can be trapped by barriers of C-doped silicon, thereby inhibiting interactions of self-interstitials with B impurities that might form the base region of a transistor. Broadening of such regions is prevented by this procedure but the effects of interstitial carbon atoms in unclear. Stolk PA, Eaglesham DJ, Gossman H-J, Poate JM. Carbon incorporation in silicon for suppressing interstitial-enhanced boron diffusion. Appl Phys Lett. 66:1995;1370-1373. of outstanding interest.
51. This is a comprehensive experimental and theoretical study that demonstrates procedures for analyzing the structures of complex defects by the use of implanted isotopes. The structure of the NNO defects is completely resolved. Berg Rasmussen F, Jones R, Öberg S, Ewels C, Goss J, Miro J, Deák P. The NNO defect in Si. Mater Sci Forum. 196-021:1995;791-796. of special interest.
52. Yang D, Fan R, Li L, Que D, Sumino K. Effect of nitrogen-oxygen on the electrical properties of Czochralski silicon. Appl Phys Lett. 68:1996;487-489.
53. This theoretical analysis shows how shallow (single) thermal donors can be produced by replacement of a Si atom in the core of a thermal (double) donor by a nitrogen atom, forging a link to many experimental reports of this center. Ewels CP, Jones R, Öberg S, Miro J, Deák P. Shallow thermal donor defects in Si. Phys Rev Lett. 77:1996;865-868. of special interest.
54. Hara A. Hydrogen-like ultrashallow thermal donors in silicon crystals. Jpn J Appl Phys. 34:1995;3418-3425.