Toxicity of local anaesthetics

Best Practice and Research: Clinical Anaesthesiology

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 111-136

  Cox, B ^a   Durieux, M E ^a   Marcus, M A E ^a  

^a MAASTRICHT UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Allergy; Cardiac toxicity; Local anaesthetics; Neurotoxicity; Treatment

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBENZOIC ACID; ADRENALIN; AMIODARONE; BARBITURIC ACID DERIVATIVE; BENZODIAZEPINE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BUPIVACAINE; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CANNABINOID RECEPTOR AGONIST; CHLOROPROCAINE; COCAINE; DEETHYLLIDOCAINE; DIGITALIS; ETIDOCAINE; INSULIN; LEVOBUPIVACAINE; LIDOCAINE; LOCAL ANESTHETIC AGENT; MEPIVACAINE; METHYL PARABEN; NORADRENALIN; OXYGEN; PHENYLEPHRINE; PHENYTOIN; PRILOCAINE; PROCAINE; ROPIVACAINE; SUXAMETHONIUM; TETRACAINE; UNINDEXED DRUG; DRUG DERIVATIVE;

ACIDOSIS; ANESTHESIA COMPLICATION; ANESTHESIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES; ANXIETY DISORDER; ARTERY THROMBOSIS; BONE MARROW TOXICITY; BRADYCARDIA; BRAIN TOXICITY; CARDIOTOXICITY; CAUDA EQUINA SYNDROME; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASE; COCAINE DEPENDENCE; CONSCIOUSNESS DISORDER; CORNEA OPACITY; CORONARY ARTERY SPASM; CYANOSIS; DIZZINESS; DROWSINESS; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG COMPETITION; DRUG FATALITY; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG PENETRATION; DRUG POTENTIATION; ECG ABNORMALITY; EPILEPTIC AURA; HEARING DISORDER; HEART FAILURE; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HEART VENTRICLE ARRHYTHMIA; HEART VENTRICLE FIBRILLATION; HEART VENTRICLE TACHYCARDIA; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMAN; HYPERCAPNIA; HYPERTENSION; HYPOXIA; INCIDENCE; INJECTION PAIN; LETHAL DOSE; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; NERVE BLOCK; NERVE CELL LESION; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; PARESTHESIA; PERIPHERAL NERVE INJURY; PLACENTA; PR INTERVAL; PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QRS COMPLEX; RADICULAR PAIN; REENTRY ARRHYTHMIA; REGIONAL ANESTHESIA; RESPIRATION DEPRESSION; RESPIRATORY FAILURE; REVIEW; SEIZURE; SENSORY DYSFUNCTION; TACHYCARDIA; TEMPERATURE SENSITIVITY; TONIC CLONIC SEIZURE; TREATMENT FAILURE; UNCONSCIOUSNESS; VISUAL FIELD DEFECT; ANIMAL; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; DRUG EFFECT; NERVOUS SYSTEM;

ANESTHETICS, LOCAL; ANIMALS; BUPIVACAINE; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; COCAINE; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; ETIDOCAINE; HUMANS; LIDOCAINE; MEPIVACAINE; NERVOUS SYSTEM; PROCAINE; TETRACAINE;

EID: 0038387343     PISSN: 15216896     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1053/bean.2003.0275     Document Type: Article

References (171)

1. Biscoping J. Bachmann-Mennenga M. Local anaesthetics from ester to isomer Anaesthesiol Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmerzther 35 2000 285-292
2. Niesel H. Local anaesthetics - maximum recommended doses Anaesthesiology Reanimation 22 1997 60-62
3. Miller R Anaesthesia 2000 Churchill Livingstone Philadelphia
4. Bowdle T. Freund P. Slattery J. Age-dependent lidocaine hydrocarbonate and lidocaine hydrochloride Regional Anesthesia 11 1986 123-127
5. Veering B. Burm A. van Kleef J. et al. Epidural anaesthesia with bupivacaine: effects of age on neural blockade and pharmacokinetics Anesthesia and Analgesia 66 1987 589-594
6. Finucane B. Hammonds W. Welch M. Influence of age on vascular absorption of lidocaine from the epidural space Anesthesia and Analgesia 66 1987 843-846
7. Veering B. Burm A. Gladines M. Spierdijk J. Age does not influence the serum protein binding of bupivacaine British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 32 1991 501-503
8. Bromage P Ageing and epidural dose requirement. Segmental spread and predictability of epidural analgesia in youth and extreme age British Journal of Anaesthesiology 41 1969 1016-1022
9. Meunier J.-F. Goujard E. Dubousset A.-M. et al. Pharmacokinetics of bupivacaine after continuous epidural infusion in infants with and without biliary atresia Anesthesiology 95 2001 87-95
10. Svensson C. Woodruff M. Baxter J. Lalka D. Free drug concentration monitoring in clinical practice Clinical Pharmacokinetics 11 1986 450-469
11. Tucker G. Pharmacokinetics of local anaesthetics British Journal of Anaesthesiology 58 1986 717-731
12. Pihlajamaki K. Kanto J. Lindberg R. et al. Extradural administration of bupivacaine: Pharmacokinetics and metabolism in pregnant and non-pregnant women British Journal of Anaesthesiology 64 1990 556-562
13. Moller R. Covino B. Effect of progesterone on the cardiac electrophysiologic alterations produced by ropivacaine and bupivacaine Anesthesiology 77 1992 735-741
14. Kytta J. Heavner J. Badgwell J. Rosenberg P. Cardiovascular and central nervous system effects of coadministered lidocaine and bupivacaine Regional Anesthesia 16 1991 89-94
15. Rosenberg P. Maximum recommended doses of local anaesthetics - need for new recommendations In van Zundert ARN (Ed.), World Congress on Regional Anaesthesia and Pain Therapy, May 29-June 1, 2002 2002 30-34 Cyprint Ltd Barcelona, Spain
16. Scott D. Jebson P. Braid B. et al. Factors affecting plasma levels of lignocaine and prilocaine British Journal of Anaesthesiology 44 1972 1040-1049
17. Marsch S. Schaefer H. Castelli I. Unusual psychological manifestation of systemic local anaesthetic toxicity Anesthesiology 88 1998 532-533
18. Rosenberg P. Kalso E. Tuominen M. Linden H. Acute bupivacaine toxicity as a result of venous leakage under the tourniquet cuff during a bier block Anesthesiology 58 1983 95-98
19. Ohmura S. Kawada M. Ohta T. Systemic toxicity and resuscitation in bupivacaine-, levobupivacaine- or ropivacaine-infused rats Anesthesia and Analgesia 93 2001 743-748
20. Dony P. Dewinde V. Vanderick B. et al. The comparative toxicity of ropivacaine and bupivacaine at equipotent doses in rats Anesthesia and Analgesia 91 2000 1489-1492
21. Santos A. Dearmas P. Systemic toxicity of levobupivacaine, bupivacaine, and ropivacaine during continuous intravenous infusion to nonpregnant and pregnant ewes Anesthesiology 95 2001 1256-1264
22. Radwan I. Satio S. Soto F. The neurotoxicity of local anaesthetics on growing neurons: a comparative study of lidocaine, bupivacaine, mepivacaine and ropivacaine Anesthesia and Analgesia 94 2002 319-324
23. Nassogne M. Evard P. Courtoy P. Selective direct toxicity of cocaine on fetal mouse neurons. Teratogenic implications of neurite and apoptotic neuronal loss Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 846 1998 51-68
24. Nassogne M. Louahed J. Evrard P. Courtoy P Cocaine induces apoptosis in cortical neurons of fetal mice Journal of Neurochemistry 68 1997 2442-2450
25. Kim M. Lee Y. Mathews H. Wurster R. Induction of apoptic cell death in a neuroblastoma cell line by dibucaine Experimental Cell Research 231 1997 235-241
26. Horlocker T.T. Mcgregor D.G. Matsushige D.K. A retrospective review of 4767 consecutive spinal anaesthetics: central nervous system complications Anesthesia and Analgesia 84 1997 578-584
27. Pavon A. Anadon Senac P. Neurotoxicity of intrathecal lidocaine Revista Espanola de Anestesiologia y Reanimacion 48 2001 326-336
28. Eisenach J. Regional anaesthesia: vintage bordeaux (and Nappa valley) Anesthesiology 87 1997 467-469
29. Schneider M. Ettlin T. Kaufmann M. Transient neurologic toxicity after hyperbaric subarachnoid anaesthesia with 5% lidocaine Anesthesia and Analgesia 76 1993 1154-1157
30. Errando C. Transient neurologic syndrome, transient radicular irritation, or postspinal musculoskeletal symptoms: are we describing the same 'syndrome' in all patients? Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 26 2001 178-180
31. Hampl K. Schneider M. Pargger H. A similar incidence of transient neurologic symptoms after spinal anaesthesia with 2% and 5% lidocaine Anesthesia and Analgesia 83 1996 1051-1054
32. Liu S.S. Ware P. Allen H. Dose-response characteristics of spinal bupivacaine in volunteers: clinical implications for ambulatory anaesthesia Anesthesiology 85 1996 729-736
33. Hiller A. Rosenberg P. Transient neurological symptoms after spinal anaesthesia with 4% mepivacaine and 0·5% bupivacaine British Journal of Anaesthesiology 79 1997 301-305
34. Lynch J. Zur Nieden M. Kasper S. Transient radicular irritation after spinal anaesthesia with hyperbaric 4% mepivacaine Anesthesia and Analgesia 85 1997 872-873
35. Tarkkila P. Huhtala J. Tuominem M. et al. Transient radicular irritation after bupivacaine spinal anaesthesia Regional Anesthesia 21 1996 26-29
36. Sakura S. Sumi M. Sakaguchi Y. The addition of phenylephrine contributes to the development of transient neurologic symptoms after spinal anaesthesia with 0·5% tetracaine Anesthesiology 87 1997 771-778
37. Sumi M. Sakura S. Kosaka Y. Intrathecal hyperbaric 0·5% tetracaine as a possible cause of transient neurologic toxicity Anesthesia and Analgesia 82 1996 1076-1077
38. Latronico N. Fassini P. A pain in the neck Lancet 359 2002 1206
39. Omori K. Isshiki N. Tsuji T. Yamashita M. Bilateral vocal paralysis and adhesion in anterior spinal artery syndrome Annals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology 111 2002 680-683
40. Butterworth J. James R. Grimes J. Structure-affinity relationships and stereospecificity of several homologous series of local anaesthetics for the B2-adrenergic receptor Anesthesia and Analgesia 85 1997 336-342
41. Mather L. Chang D. Cardiotoxicity with modern local anaesthetics: is there a safe choice? Drugs 61 2001 333-342
42. 2+ channels? Anesthesia and Analgesia 92 2001 496-501
43. Mcclure J. Ropivacaine British Journal of Anaesthesia 76 1996 300-307
44. Morishima H. Pederson H. Finster M. Bupivacaine toxicity in pregnant and nonpregnant ewes Anesthesiology 63 1985 134-139
45. Santos A. Karpel B. Noble G. The placental transfer and fetal effects of levobupivacaine, racemic bupivacaine and ropivacaine Anesthesiology 90 1999 1698-1703
46. Roitman K. Sprung J. Wallace M. Enhancement of bupivacaine cardiotoxicity with cardiac glycosides and beta-adrenergic blockers: a case report Anesthesia and Analgesia 76 1993 658-661
47. Timour Q. Freysz M. Couzon P. Possible role of drug interaction in bupivacaine-induced problems related to intraventricular conduction disorders Regional Anesthesia 15 1990 180-185
48. Butterworth J. Brownlow R. Leith J.P. et al. Bupivacaine inhibits cyclic-3′,5′-adenosine monophosphate production: a possible contributing factor to cardiovascular toxicity Anesthesiology 79 1993 88-95
49. Clarkson C. Hondeghem L. Mechanism for bupivacaine depression of cardiac conduction: fast block of sodium channels during the action potential with slow recovery from block during diastole Anesthesiology 62 1985 396-405
50. Atlee J. Bosnjak Z. Mechanisms for dysrhythmias during anaesthesia Anesthesiology 72 1990 347-374
51. Moller R. Covino B. Cardiac electrophysiologic properties of bupivacaine and lidocaine compared with those of ropivacaine, a new amide local anaesthetic Anesthesiology 72 1990 322-329
52. Kending J. Clinical implications of the modulated receptor hypothesis: local anaesthetics and the heart Anesthesiology 62 1985 382-384
53. Zhang L. Xia Y. He J. Cocaine and apoptosis in myocardial cells Anatomical Record 257 1999 208-216
54. Xiao Y. Xiao D. He J. Zhang L. Maternal administration during pregnancy induces apoptosis in fetal rat heart Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 37 2001 639-648
55. He J. Xiao Y. Zhang L. Cocaine induces apoptosis in human coronary artery endothelial cells Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 35 2000 572-580
56. Brown D. Beamish D. Wildsmith J. Allergic reaction to an amide local anaesthetic British Journal of Anaesthesiology 53 1981 435-437
57. Adriani J. Zepernick R. Allergic reactions to local anaesthetics Southern Medical Journal 74 1981 694-703
58. van den Hove J. Decroix J. Tennstedt D. Lachapelle J. Allergic contact dermatitis from prilocaine, one of the local anaesthetics in EMLA cream Contact Dermatitis 30 1994-239
59. Erkkola R. Kanto J. Kero P. Allergic reaction to an amide local anaesthetic in segmental epidural analgesia Acta Obstetrica et Gynaecologica Scandinavia 67 1988 181-184
60. Eggleston S. Lush L. Understanding allergic reactions to local anaesthetics Annals of Pharmacotherapy 30 1996 851-857
61. Mendelson J. Mello N. Management of cocaine abuse and dependence New England Journal of Medicine 334 1996 965-972
62. Leshner A. Molecular mechanisms of cocaine addiction New England Journal of Medicine 335 1996 128-129
63. Hollander J. Hoffman R. Burstein J. et al. Cocaine-associated myocardial infarction. Mortality and complications. Cocaine-Associated Myocardial Infarction Study Group Archives of Internal Medicine 155 1995 1081-1086
64. Weicht G. Bernards C. Remote cocaine use as a likely cause of cardiogenic shock after penetrating trauma Anesthesiology 85 1996 933-935
65. Nademanee K. Gorelick D. Josephson M Myocardial ischaemia during cocaine withdrawal Annals of Internal Medicine 111 1989 876-880
66. Kain Z. Mayes L. Ferris C. Cocaine-abusing parturients undergoing cesarian section. A cohort study Anesthesiology 85 1996 1028-1035
67. Woods J. Plessinger M. Clark K Effect of cocaine on uterine blood flow and fetal oxigenation JAMA 257 1987 957-961
68. Bernards C. Teijeiro A. Illicit cocaine ingestion during anaesthesia Anesthesiology 84 1996 218-220
69. Levine R. Brust J. Futrell N. Cocaine-induced coronary artery vasoconstriction New England Journal of Medicine 323 1989 699-704
70. Barash P. Cocaine in clinical medicine NIDA Research Monograph 13 1977 193-200
71. Ngai S. Shirasawa R. Cheney D. Changes in motor activity and acetylcholine turnover induced by lidocaine and cocaine in brain regions of rats Anesthesiology 51 1979 230-234
72. Flemming J. Byck R. Barash P. Pharmacologic and therapeutic applications of cocaine Anesthesiology 73 1990 518-531
73. Campbell D. Adriani J. Absorption of local anaesthetics JAMA 168 1958 873-877
74. Friedrichs G. Wei H. Merril G. Coronary vasodilatation caused by intravenous cocaine in the anesthetized beagle Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 68 1990 893-897
75. Lange R. Cigarroa R. Yancy C. Cocaine-induced coronary-artery vasospasm New England Journal of Medicine 321 1989 1557-1562
76. Chiu Y. Brecht K. Dasgupta D. Mhoon E. Myocardial infarction with topical cocaine anaesthesia for nasal surgery Archives of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 112 1986 988-990
77. Lustik S. Chibber A. van Vliet M. Pomerantz R. Ephedrine-induced coronary vasospasm in a patient with prior cocaine use Anesthesia and Analgesia 84 1997 931-933
78. Minor R. Scott B. Brown D. Winniford M. Cocaine-induced myocardial infarction in patients with normal coronary arteries Annals of Internal Medicine 115 1991 797-806
79. Williams M. Stewart R. Serial angiography in cocaine-induced myocadial infarction Chest 111 1997 822-824
80. Pollan S. Tadjziechy M. Esmolol in the management of epinephrine and cocaine-induced cardiovascular toxicity Anesthesia and Analgesia 69 1989 663-664
81. Lange R. Hillis L. Cocaine and the heart Resid Staff Physician 39 1993 49-52
82. Barrosos-Moguel R. Villeda-Hernandez J. Mendez-Armenta M. Medical causes and effects of cocaine abuse Archives of Investigative Medicine 22 1991 3-7
83. Fairbanks D. Fairbanks G. Cocaine use and abuse Annals of Plastic Surgery 10 1983 452-457
84. Pearman K. Cocaine: a review Journal of Laryngology and Otology 93 1979 1191-1199
85. Zagelbaum B. Donnenfeld E. Perry H. Corneal ulcer caused by combined intravenous and anaesthetic abuse of cocaine American Journal of Opthalmology 116 1993 241-242
86. Nolte K. Rhabdomyolysis associated with cocaine abuse Human Pathology 22 1991 1141-1145
87. Billman G. Mechanisms responsible for cardiotoxic effects of cocaine FASEB Journal 4 1990 2469-2475
88. Andresen M. Brodwick M. Yang M. Contrasting actions of cocaine, local anaesthetic and tetrodotoxin on discharge properties of rat aortic baroreceptors Journal of Physiology 477 1994 309-319
89. Barash P. Is cocaine a sympathetic stimulant during general anaesthesia? JAMA 243 1980 1437-1439
90. Koehntop D. Liao J. van Bergen F. Effects of pharmacologic alterations of adrenergic mechanisms by cocaine, tropolone, aminophylline and ketamine on epinephrine-induced arrhythmias during halothane-nitrous oxide anaesthesia Anesthesiology 46 1977 83-93
91. Banhawy M. Rashed R. Bowler K. Stacey M. The effect of a single inject of mepivacaine hydrochloride on spermatogenesis in the rat Journal of Reproductive Fertility 51 1977 477-479
92. Bird D. Markey J. Massive pulmonary edema in a habituel crack cocaine smoker not chemically positive for cocaine at the time of surgery Anesthesia and Analgesia 84 1997 1157-1159
93. Lason W. Neurochemical and pharmacological aspects of cocaine-induced seizures Polish Journal of Pharmacology 53 2001 57-60
94. Dehkordi O. Dennis G. Millis R. Trouth C. Cardiorespiratory effects of cocaine and procaine at the ventral brainstem Neurotoxicology 17 1996 387-396
95. Hayase T. Yamamoto Y. Yamamoto K. Protective effects of cannabinoid receptor agonists against cocaine and other convulsant-induced toxic behavioural symptoms Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 53 2001 1525-1532
96. Tagariello V. Caporuscio A. De Tommaso O. Mepivacaine: update on an evergreen local anaesthetic Minerva Anestesiologica 67 2001 5-8
97. Rodriguez J. Quintela O. Lopez-Rivadulla M. et al. High doses of mepivacaine for brachial plexus block in patients with end-stage chronic renal failure. A pilot study European Journal of Anaesthesiology 18 2001 171-176
98. Cockings E. Moore P. Lewis R.C. Transarterial brachial plexus blockade using high doses of 1·5% mepivacaine Regional Anesthesia 12 1987 159-164
99. Hickey R. Hoffman J. Tingle L. Comparison of the clinical efficacy of three perivascular techniques for axillary brachial plexus block Regional and Anesthesia 18 1993 335-338
100. Roch J. Sharrock N. Neudachin L. Interscalene brachial plexus block for shoulder surgery: a proximal paresthesia is effective Anesthesia and Analgesia 75 1992 386-388
101. Tetzlaff J. Yoon H. Brems J. Interscalene brachial plexus block for shoulder surgery Regional Anesthesia 19 1994 339-343
102. Urmey W. Talts K. Sharrock N. One hundred percent incidence of hemidiaphragmatic paresis associated with interscalene brachial plexus anaesthesia and diagnosed by ultrasonography Anesthesia and Analgesia 72 1991 498-503
103. Urmey W. Mcdonald M. Hemidiaphragmatic paresis during interscalene brachial plexus block: effects on pulmonary function and chest wall mechanics Anesthesia and Analgesia 74 1992 352-357
104. Morimoto O. Nishikawa K. Yukioka H. Fujimori M. Effects of intravenous mepivacaine on renal sympathetic activity in the cat during nitrous oxide and nitrous oxide-halothane anaesthesia Regional Anesthesia 21 1996 41-48
105. Tucker G.T. Moore D. Bridenbaugh P. Thompson G. Systemic absorption of mepivacaine in commonly used regional block procedures Anesthesiology 37 1972 277-287
106. Basson M. Carlson B. Myotoxicity of single and repeated injections of mepivacaine (carbocaine) in the rat Anesthesia and Analgesia 59 1980 275-282
107. Johnson M. Jones G. Effects of marcaine, a myotoxic drug, on macromolecular synthesis in muscle Biochemistry and Pharmacology 27 1978 1753-1757
108. Tetzlaff J. Clinical Pharmacology of Local Anaesthetics 2000 Butterworth-Heinemann London
109. Jorfeldt L. Lewis D. Lofstrom J. Post C. Lung uptake of lidocaine in man as influenced by anaesthesia, mepivacaine infusion or lung insufficiency Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 27 1983 5-9
110. Smith A. Hur D. Resano F. Grand mal seizures after 2-chloroprocaine epidural anaesthesia in a patient with plasma cholinesterase deficiency Anesthesia and Analgesia 66 1987 677-678
111. Seravalli E. Lear E. Cottrell J. Cell membrane fusion by chloroprocaine Anesthesia and Analgesia 63 1984 985-990
112. Pitkanen M. Suzuki N. Rosenberg P. Intravenous regional anaesthesia with 0·5% prilocaine or 0·5% chloroprocaine Anaesthesia 42 1992 618-619
113. Carmeliet E. Morad M. van Der Heyden G. Vereecke J. Electrophysiological effects of tetracaine in single guinea pig ventricular myocytes Journal of Physiology 376 1986 143-161
114. Adams H. Mastri A. Eicholzer A. Kilpatrick G. Morphologic effects of etidocaine and tetracaine on the rabbit spinal cord Anesthesia and Analgesia 54 1974 904-908
115. Ready L. Plumer M. Haschke R. et al. Neurotoxicity of intrathecal local anaesthetics in rabbits Anesthesiology 63 1985 364-370
116. Takenami T. Yagishita S. Asato F. Hoka S. Neurotoxicity of intrathecally administered tetracaine commences at the posterior roots near entry into the spinal cord Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 25 2000 372-379
117. Saito S. Radwan I. Obata H. et al. Direct neurotoxicity of tetracaine on growth cones and neurites of growing neurons in vitro Anesthesiology 95 2001 726-733
118. Chayen M. Blood levels of lidocaine in continuous epidural anaesthesia Anesthesiology 34 1971 384-385
119. Burney R. Difazio C. Foster J. Effects of pH on protein binding of lidocaine Anesthesia and Analgesia 57 1978 478-480
120. McEllistrem R. O'Malley K. O'Toole D. Cunningham A. Interscalene brachial plexus blockade with lidocaine in chronic renal failure - a pharmacokinetic study Canadian Journal of Anaesthesiology 36 1989 59-63
121. De Jong R. Heavner J. De Oliveira L. Effects of nitrous oxide on the lidocaine seizure threshold and diazepam protection Anesthesiology 37 1972 691-692
122. Mcwhirter W. Schmidt F. Frederickson E. Steinhaus J. Cardiovascular effects of controlled lidocaine overdosage in dogs anesthetized with nitrous oxide Anesthesiology 39 1973 398-404
123. Huang Y. Upton R. Rutten A. Hunciman W. IV bolus administration of subconvulsive doses of lignocaine to conscious sheep: effects on circulatory function British Journal of Anaesthesiology 69 1992 368-374
124. Johns R. Difazio C. Longnecker D. Lidocaine constricts or dilates rat arterioles in a dose-dependent manner Anesthesiology 62 1985 141-144
125. Yukioka H Hayashi M Tatekawa S Fujimori M Effects of lidocaine on pulmonary circulation during hyperoxia and hypoxia in the dog Regional Anesthesia 21 1996 327-337
126. Sawyer R von Schroeder S Temporary bilateral blindness after acute lidocaine toxicity Anesthesia and Analgesia 95 2002 224-226
127. Bellamy M Hopkins P Halsall P Ellis F A study into the incidence of methemoglobinaemia after 'three-in-one' block with prilocaine Anesthesia 47 1992 1084-1085
128. Morgan D. Mcquillan D. Thomas J. Disposition and placental transfer of etidocaine in pregnancy European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 22 1977 451-457
129. Wiklund L. Berlin-Wahlen A. Splanchnic elimination and systemic toxicity of bupivacaine and etidocaine in man Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 21 1977 521-528
130. Liu P. Feldman H. Giasi R. Comparative CNS toxicity of lidocaine, etidocaine, bupivacaine and tetracaine in awake dogs following rapid intravenous injection Anesthesia and Analgesia 62 1983 375-379
131. Burn A. van Kleef J. Gladines M. et al. Epidural anaesthesia with lidocaina and bupivacaine: effects of epinephrine on the plasma concentration profiles Anesthesia and Analgesia 65 1986 1281-1284
132. Graf B Martin E Bosnjak Z Stowe D Stereospecific effect of bupivacaine isomers on atrioventricular conduction in the isolated perfused guinea pig heart Anesthesiology 86 1997 410-419
133. Davis N De Jong R Successful resuscitation following massive bupivacaine overdose Anesthesia and Analgesia 61 1982 62-64
134. Friedman G. Rowlingson J. Difazio C. Donegan M. Evaluation of the analgesic effect and urinary excretion of systemic bupivacaine in man Anesthesia and Analgesia 61 1982 23-27
135. Yashimoro H. Bupivacaine induced seizure after accidental intravenous injection, a complication of epidural anesthesia Anesthesiology 47 1977 472-473
136. Liu P. Feldman H. Giasi R. Comparative CNS toxicity of lidocaine, etidocaine, bupivacaine and tetracaine in awake dogs following rapid intravenous administration Anesthesia and Analgesia 62 1983 375-379
137. Munson E. Tucker W. Ausinsch B. Malagodi M. Etidocaine, bupivacaine and lidocaine seizure threshold in monkeys Anesthesiology 42 1975 471-478
138. Adsan H. Tulunay M. Onaran O. The effect of verapamil and nimodipine on bupivacaine-induced cardiotoxicity in rats: an in vivo and in vitro study Anesthesia and Analgesia 86 1998 818-824
139. Simon L. Kariya N. Pelle-Lancien E. Mazoit J-X Bupivacaine-induced QRS prolongation is enhanced by lidocaine and by phenytoin in rabbit hearts Anesthesia and Analgesia 94 2002 203-207
140. Heavner J. Pitkanen M. Shi B. Rosenberg P. Resuscitation from bupivacaine-induced asystole in rats: comparison of different cardioactive drugs Anesthesia and Analgesia 80 1995 1134-1139
141. Cho H. Lee J. Chung I. et al. Insulin reverses bupivacaine-induced cardiac depression in dogs Anesthesia and Analgesia 91 2000 1096-1102
142. Aberg G. Toxicological and local anaesthetic effects of optically active isomers of two local anaesthetic compounds Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 31 1972 273-286
143. Mazoit J. Boico O. Samii K. Myocardial uptake of bupivacaine: II Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of bupivacaine enantiomers in the isolated perfused rabbit heart Anesthesia and Analgesia 77 1993 477-482
144. Vanhoutte F. Vereecke J. Verbeke N. Cameliet N. Stereoselective effects of the enantiomers of bupivacaine on the electrophysiological properties of the guinea-pig papillary muscle British Journal of Pharmacology 103 1991 1275-1281
145. Harding D. Collier P. Huckle R. et al. Comparison of the cardiotoxic effects of bupivacaine, levobupivacaine and ropivacaine. An in vitro study in guinea-pig and human cardiac muscle Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 23 (supplement) 1998 6 abstract
146. Morrison S. Dominguez J. Frascarolo P. Reiz S. Cardiotoxic effects of levobupivacaine, bupivacaine and ropivacaine - An experimental study in pentobarbital anesthetized swine Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 23 1998 50 supplement
147. Huang Y. Pryor M. Mather L. Veering B. Cardiovascular and central nervous system effects of intravenous levobupivacaine and bupivacaine in sheep Anesthesia and Analgesia 86 1998 797-804
148. Chang D. Ladd L. Wilson K. Tolerability of large-dose intravenous levobupivacaine in sheep Anesthesia and Analgesia 91 2000 671-679
149. Reynolds F. Levobupivacaine in Local Anaesthesia 2000 The Royal Society of Medicine Press Ltd London
150. Gristwood R. Cardiac and CNS toxicity of levobupivacaine: strengths of evidence for advantage over bupivacaine Drug Safety 25 2002 153-163
151. Carpenter R. Local anaesthetic toxicity: the case of ropivacaine American Journal of Anesthesiology 24 1997 4-7
152. Bariskaner H. Tuncer S. Ulusoy H. Dogan N. Effects of bupivacaine and ropivacaine on haemodynamic parameters in rabbits Methods and Findings in Experimental Clinical Pharmacology 23 2001 89-92
153. Reiz S. Haggmark S. Johansson G. Nath S. Cardiotoxicity of ropivacaine-a new amide local anaesthetic agent Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 33 1989 93-98
154. Concepcion M. Arthur G. Steele S. et al. A new local anaesthetic, ropivacaine. Its epidural effects in humans Anesthesia and Analgesia 70 1990 80-85
155. Scott D. Lee A. Fagan D. et al. Acute toxicity of ropivacaine compared to that of bupivacaine Anesthesia and Analgesia 69 1989 563-569
156. Mcclellan K. Faulds D. Ropivacaine: an update of its use in regional anaesthesia Drugs 60 2000 1065-1093
157. Markham A. Faulds D. Ropivacaine. A review of its pharmacology and therapeutic use in regional anaesthesia Drugs 52 1996 429-449
158. Miyabe M. Kakiuchi Y. Inomata S. Epinephrine does not reduce the plasma concentration of lidocaine during continuous epidural infusion in children Canadian Journal of Anaesthesiology 49 2002 706-710
159. Moore D. Batra M. The components of an effective test dose prior to epidural block Anesthesiology 55 1981 693-696
160. Liu P. Feldman H. Covino B. Acute cardiovascular toxicity of intravenous amide local anaesthetics in anesthetized ventilated dogs Anesthesia and Analgesia 61 1982 317-322
161. Feldman H. Arthur G. Covino B. Comparative systemic toxicity of convulsant and supraconvulsant doses of intravenous ropivacaine, bupivacaine, and lidocaine in the conscious dog Anesthesia and Analgesia 69 1989 794-801
162. Feldman H. Arthur G. Pitkanen M. Treatment of acute systemic toxicity after the rapid intravenous injection of ropivacaine and bupivacaine in the conscious dog Anesthesia and Analgesia 73 1991 373-384
163. Covino B. Toxicity and systemic effects of local anaesthetic agents In Strichartz G (Ed.), Local Anaesthetics, Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology 1987 187-209 Springer-Verlag New York
164. Finucane B. Complications of Regional Anaesthesia 1999 Churchill Livingstone Philadelphia
165. Moore D. Bridenbaugh L. Oxygen: the antidote for systemic toxic reactions from local anaesthetic drugs JAMA 174 1960 842-847
166. Moore D. Crawford R. Scurlock J. Severe hypoxia and acidosis following local anaesthetic-induced convulsions Anesthesiology 53 1980 259-260
167. Moore D. Thompson G. Crawford R. Longacting local anaesthetic drugs and convulsions with hypoxia and acidosis Anesthesiology 56 1982 230-232
168. Caron M. Kluger J. White C. Amiodarone in the new AHA guidelines for ventricular tachyarrhythmias Annals of Pharmacotherapy 35 2001 1248-1254
169. Siegers A. Board P. Amiodarone used in successful resuscitation after near-fatal flecainide overdose Resuscitation 53 2002 105-108
170. Edwards K. Wenstone R. Succesful resuscitation from recurrent ventricular fibrillation secondary to butane inhalation British Journal of Anaesthesiology 84 2000 803-805
171. Pohlgeers A. Villafane J. Ventricular fibrillation in two infants treated with amiodarone hydrochloride Pediatric Cardiology 16 1995 82-84