Recent advances in the pharmacological treatment of colorectal cancer

Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs

Volumn 12, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 423-434

  Messersmith, Wells ^a   Laheru, Daniel ^a   Hidalgo, Manuel ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Chemotherapy; Clinical trials; Colorectal cancer; Targeted therapy

Indexed keywords

6 (4 HYDROXYPHENYL) 4 (ALPHA METHYLBENZYLAMINO) 7H PYRROLO[2,3 D]PYRIMIDINE; ANGIOGENESIS INHIBITOR; ANGIOSTATIN; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; BEVACIZUMAB; CANERTINIB; CAPECITABINE; CELECOXIB; CETUXIMAB; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2 INHIBITOR; EDRECOLOMAB; ENDOSTATIN; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR; ERLOTINIB; FARNESTRA; FLOXURIDINE PHOSPHATE; FLUOROPYRIMIDINE DERIVATIVE; FLUOROURACIL; FOLINIC ACID; GEFITINIB; IRINOTECAN; LEVAMISOLE; OXALIPLATIN; PELITINIB; PROTEIN TYROSINE KINASE INHIBITOR; ROFECOXIB; SEMAXANIB; TIPIFARNIB; UFT; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VASCULOTROPIN INHIBITOR;

ADVANCED CANCER; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; CANCER COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER STAGING; CANCER SURVIVAL; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLORECTAL CANCER; DIARRHEA; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG TOLERABILITY; FEBRILE NEUTROPENIA; GENETIC MARKER; HAND FOOT SYNDROME; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; METASTASIS; MUCOSA INFLAMMATION; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; STROKE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TREATMENT PLANNING;

ANGIOGENESIS INHIBITORS; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS; CANCER VACCINES; CLINICAL TRIALS; COLORECTAL NEOPLASMS; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR; HUMANS; ISOENZYMES; MEMBRANE PROTEINS; NEOPLASM METASTASIS; PROSTAGLANDIN-ENDOPEROXIDE SYNTHASES; RAS PROTEINS;

EID: 0037342730     PISSN: 13543784     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1517/13543784.12.3.423     Document Type: Review

References (97)

1. PARKIN DM, BRAY F, FERLAY J, PISANI P: Estimating the world cancer burden: Globocan 2000. Int. J. Cancer (2001) 94(2):153-156.
2. BENSON AB 3rd, MULCAHY MF: Recent and ongoing clinical trials for treating colorectal cancer. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs (2002) 11(6):871-880.
3. Modulation of fluorouracil by leucovorin in patients with advanced colorectal cancer: evidence in terms of response rate. Advanced Colorectal Cancer Meta-Analysis Project. J. Clin. Oncol. (1992) 10(6):896-903.
4. WOLMARK N, ROCKETTE H, FISHER B et al.: The benefit of leucovorin-modulated fluorouracil as postoperative adjuvant therapy for primary colon cancer: results from National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project protocol C-03. J. Clin. Oncol. (1993) 11(10):1879-1887.
5. Efficacy of adjuvant fluorouracil and folinic acid in colon cancer. International Multicentre Pooled Analysis of Colon Cancer Trials (IMPACT) investigators. Lancet (1995) 345(8955):939-944.
6. GOLDBERG RM, HATFIELD AK, KAHN M et al.: Prospectively randomized North Central Cancer Treatment Group trial of intensive-course fluorouracil combined with the l-isomer of intravenous leucovorin, oral leucovorin, or intravenous leucovorin for the treatment of advanced colorectal cancer. J Clin. Oncol. (1997) 15(11):3320-3329.
7. MOERTEL CG, FLEMING TR, MACDONALD JS et al.: Fluorouracil plus levamisole as effective adjuvant therapy after resection of stage III colon carcinoma. a final report. Ann. Intern. Med. (1995) 122(5):321-326.
8. HALLER DG, CATALANO P, MACDONALD JS, MAYER RJ: Fluorouracil (FU), leucovorin (LV), and levamisole (LEV) adjuvant therapy for colon cancer: five-year final report of INT-0089. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (1998) (Abstract).
9. Comparison of flourouracil with additional levamisole, higher-dose folinic acid, or both, as adjuvant chemotherapy for colorectal cancer: a randomised trial. QUASAR Collaborative Group. Lancet (2000) 355(9215):1588-1596.
10. BENEDETTI JK, ESTES N, GOLDBERG D et al.: Phase III randomized trial of bolus 5-FU/leucovorin/levamisole versus 5-FU continuous infusion/levamisole as adjuvant therapy for high risk colon cancer (SOWG 9415/INT0153). Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2000) (Abstract).
11. CUNNINGHAM D, HICKISH T, HILL M et al.: Multicentre randomised trial of protracted venous infusion (PVI) 5FU compared to 5FU/folinic acid (5FU/FA) as adjuvant therapy for colorectal cancer. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2000) (Abstract).
12. ANDRE T, COLIN P, LOUVET C et al.: Randomized adjuvant study comparing two schemes of 5-fluorouracil and leucovorin in stage B2 and C colon adenocarcinoma: study design and preliminary safety results. Groupe d'Etude et de Recherche Clinique en Oncologie Radiotherapies. Semin. Oncol. (2001) 28(1, Suppl. 1):35-40.
13. SALTZ LB, COX JV, BLANKE C et al.: Irinotecan plus fluorouracil and leucovorin for metastatic colorectal cancer. Irinotecan Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. (2000) 343(13):905-914.
14. ROTHENBERG ML, MEROPOL NJ, POPLIN EA, VAN CUTSEM E, WADLER S: Mortality associated with irinotecan plus bolus fluorouracil/leucovorin: summary findings of an independent panel. J. Clin. Oncol. (2001) 19(18):3801-3807.
15. RIETHMULLER G, HOLZ E, SCHLIMOK G et al.: Monoclonal antibody therapy for resected Dukes' C colorectal cancer: seven-year outcome of a multicenter randomized trial. J. Clin. Oncol. (1998) 16(5):1788-1794.
16. RIETHMULLER G, SCHNEIDER-GADICKE E, SCHLIMOK G et al.: Randomised trial of monoclonal antibody for adjuvant therapy of resected Dukes' C colorectal carcinoma. German Cancer Aid 17-1A Study Group. Lancet (1994) 343(8907):1177-1183.
17. PUNT CJ, NAGY A, DOUILLARD JY et al.: Edrecolomab alone or in combination with fluorouracil and folinic acid in the adjuvant treatment of stage III colon cancer: a randomised study. Lancet (2002) 360(9334):671-677.
18. FIELDS A, KELLER A, SCHWARTZBERG L et al.: Edrecolomab (17-1A antibody) (EDR) in combination with 5-fluorouracil (FU) based chemotherapy in the adjuvant treatment of stage III colon cancer: results of a randomised north american Phase III study. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2002) (Abstract).
19. MINSKY BD, MIES C, RECHT A, RICH TA, CHAFFEY JT: Resectable adenocarcinoma of the rectosigmoid and rectum. I. Patterns of failure and survival. Cancer (1988) 61(7):1408-1416.
20. HAVENGA K, ENKER WE, NORSTEIN J et al.: Improved survival and local control after total mesorectal excision or D3 lymphadenectomy in the treatment of primary rectal cancer: an international analysis of 1411 patients. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. (1999) 25(4):368-374.
21. DOUGLASS HO Jr, MOERTEL CG, MAYER RJ et al.: Survival after postoperative combination treatment of rectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. (1986) 315(20):1294-1295.
22. KROOK JE, MOERTEL CG, GUNDERSON LL et al.: Effective surgical adjuvant therapy for high-risk rectal carcinoma. N. Engl. J. Med. (1991) 324(11):709-715.
23. WOLMARK N, WIEAND HS, HYAMS DM et al.: Randomized trial of postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy with or without radiotherapy for carcinoma of the rectum: National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project Protocol R-02. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (2000) 92(5):388-396.
24. O'CONNELL MJ, MARTENSON JA, WIEAND HS et al.: Improving adjuvant therapy for rectal cancer by combining protracted-infusion fluorouracil with radiation therapy after curative surgery. N. Engl. J. Med. (1994) 331(8):502-507.
25. TEPPER JE, O'CONNELL M, NIEDZWIECKI D et al.: Adjuvant therapy in rectal cancer: analysis of stage, sex, and local control-final report of intergroup 0114. J. Clin. Oncol. (2002) 20(7):1744-1750.
26. Improved survival with preoperative radiotherapy in resectable rectal cancer. Swedish Rectal Cancer Trial. N. Engl. J. Med. (1997) 336(14):980-987.
27. HOLM T, SINGNOMKLAO T, RUTQVIST LE, CEDERMARK B: Adjuvant preoperative radiotherapy in patients with rectal carcinoma. Adverse effects during long term follow-up of two randomized trials. Cancer (1996) 78(5):968-976.
28. HYAMS DM, MAMOUNAS EP, PETRELLI N et al.: A clinical trial to evaluate the worth of preoperative multimodality therapy in patients with operable carcinoma of the rectum: a progress report of National Surgical Breast and Bowel Project Protocol R-03. Dis. Colon Rectum (1997) 40(2):131-139.
29. GRANN A, MINSKY BD, COHEN AM et al.: Preliminary results of preoperative 5-fluorouracil, low-dose leucovorin, and concurrent radiation therapy for clinically resectable T3 rectal cancer. Dis. Colon Rectum (1997) 40(5):515-522.
30. SAUER R, FIETKAU R, MARTUS P, RAAB R, ROEDEL C, WITTEKIND C: Adjuvant and neoadjuvant radiochemotherapy for advanced rectal cancer - the first results of the German multicenter phase-III-trial. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. (2000) 48(3):119 (Abstract).
31. WILLETT CG, WARLAND G, HAGAN MP et al.: Tumor proliferation in rectal cancer following preoperative irradiation. J. Clin. Oncol. (1995) 13(6):1417-1424.
32. CARRARO S, ROCA EL, CARTELLI C et al.: Radiochemotherapy with short daily infusion of low-dose oxaliplatin, leucovorin, and 5-FU in T3-T4 unresectable rectal cancer: a Phase II IATTGI study. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. (2002) 54(2):397-402.
33. KLAUTKE G, KIRCHNER R, HOPT U, FIETKAU R: Continuous infusion of 5-FU and weekly irinotecan with concurrent radiotherapy as neoadjuvant treatment for locally advanced or recurrent rectal cancer. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2001) (Abstract).
34. KIM J, KIM J, CHO M, SONG K, YOON W: Preoperative chemoradiation using oral capecitabine in locally advanced rectal cancer. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. (2002) 54(2):403.
35. MAMOUNAS E, WIEAND S, WOLMARK N et al.: Comparative efficacy of adjuvant chemotherapy in patients with Dukes' B versus Dukes' C colon cancer: results from four National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project adjuvant studies (C-01, C-02, C-03, and C-04). J. Clin. Oncol. (1999) 17(5):1349-1355.
36. TAAL BG, VAN TINTEREN H, ZOETMULDER FA: Adjuvant 5FU plus levamisole in colonic or rectal cancer: improved survival in stage II and III. Br. J. Cancer (2001) 85(10):1437-1443.
37. Efficacy of adjuvant fluorouracil and folinic acid in B2 colon cancer. International Multicentre Pooled Analysis of B2 Colon Cancer Trials (IMPACT B2) Investigators. J. Clin. Oncol. (1999) 17(5):1356-1363.
38. SCHRAG D, RIFAS-SHIMAN S, SALTZ L, BACH PB, BEGG CB: Adjuvant chemotherapy use for medicare beneficiaries with stage II colon cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. (2002) 20(19):3999-4005.
39. BUYSE M, PIEDBOIS P: Should Dukes' B patients receive adjuvant therapy? A statistical perspective. Semin. Oncol. (2001) 28(1, Suppl. 1):20-24.
40. ROUGIER P, VAN CUTSEM E, BAJETTA E et al.: Randomised trial of irinotecan versus fluorouracil by continuous infusion after fluorouracil failure in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. Lancet (1998) 352(9138):1407-1412.
41. CUNNINGHAM D, GLIMELIUS B: A Phase III study of irinotecan (CPT-11) versus best supportive care in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer who have failed 5-fluorouracil therapy. V301 Study Group. Semin. Oncol. (1999) 26(1, Suppl. 5):6-12.
42. DOUILLARD JY, CUNNINGHAM D, ROTH AD et al.: Irinotecan combined with fluorouracil compared with fluorouracil alone as first-line treatment for metastatic colorectal cancer: a multicentre randomised trial. Lancet (2000) 355(9209):1041-1047.
43. MILLER L, EMANUEL D, ELFRING G, BARKER K, SALTZ L: 60-Day, all-cause mortality with first-line irinotecan/fluoruracil/leucovorin (IFL) or fluorouracil/leucovroin (FL) for metastatic colorectal cancer. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2002) (Abstract).
44. GIACCHETTI S, PERPOINT B, ZIDANI R et al.: Phase III multicenter randomized trial of oxaliplatin added to chronomodulated fluorouracil-leucovorin as first-line treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. (2000) 18(1):136-147.
45. DE GRAMONT A, FIGER A, SEYMOUR M et al.: Leucovorin and fluorouracil with or without oxaliplatin as first-line treatment in advanced colorectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. (2000) 18(16):2938-2947.
46. ROTHENBERG ML, OZA M, BURGER B et al.: Phase III trial of bolus + infusional 5-FU/leucovorin versus oxaliplatin versus the combination in patients with recurrent metastatic colorectal cancer following irinotecan, bolus 5-FU, and leucovorin: Interim results. Ann. Oncol. (2002) 13(Suppl. 5) (Abstract).
47. TOURNIGAND C, LOUVET C, QUINAUX E et al.: FOLFIRI followed by FOLFOX Versus FOLFOX followed by FOLFIRI in metastatic colorectal cancer: final results of a Phase III study. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2001) (Abstract).
48. MIWA M, URA M, NISHIDA M et al.: Design of a novel oral fluoropyrimidine carbamate, capecitabine, which generates 5-fluorouracil selectively in tumours by enzymes concentrated in human liver and cancer tissue. Eur. J. Cancer (1998) 34(8):1274-1281.
49. SAWADA N, ISHIKAWA T, FUKASE Y, NISHIDA M, YOSHIKUBO T, ISHITSUKA H: Induction of thymidine phosphorylase activity and enhancement of capecitabine efficacy by taxol/taxotere in human cancer xenografts. Clin. Cancer Res. (1998) 4(4):1013-1019.
50. HOFF PM, ANSARI R, BATIST G et al.: Comparison of oral capecitabine versus intravenous fluorouracil plus leucovorin as first-line treatment in 605 patients with metastatic colorectal cancer: results of a randomized Phase III study. J. Clin. Oncol. (2001) 19(8):2282-2292.
51. VAN CUTSEM E, TWELVES C, CASSIDY J et al.: Oral capecitabine compared with intravenous fluorouracil plus leucovorin in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer: results of a large Phase III study. J. Clin. Oncol. (2001) 19(21):4097-4106.
52. CARMICHAEL J, POPIELA T, RADSTONE D et al.: Randomized comparative study of tegafur/uracil and oral leucovorin versus parenteral Fluorouracil and leucovorin in patients with previously untreated metastatic colorectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. (2002) 20(17):3617-3627.
53. DOUILLARD JY, HOFF PM, SKILLINGS JR et al.: Multicenter Phase III study of uracil/tegafur and oral leucovorin versus fluorouracil and leucovorin in patients with previously untreated metastatic colorectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. (2002) 20(17):3605-3616.
54. YASUI W, SUMIYOSHI H, HATA J et al.: Expression of epidermal growth factor receptor in human gastric and colonic carcinomas. Cancer Res. (1988) 48(1):137-141.
55. LEE JC, WANG ST, CHOW NH, YANG HB: Investigation of the prognostic value of coexpressed erbB family members for the survival of colorectal cancer patients after curative surgery. Eur. J. Cancer (2002) 38(8):1065-1071.
56. MAYER A, TAKIMOTO M, FRITZ E, SCHELLANDER G, KOFLER K, LUDWIG H: The prognostic significance of proliferating cell nuclear antigen, epidermal growth factor receptor, and mdr gene expression in colorectal cancer. Cancer (1993) 71(8):2454-2460.
57. SIROTNAK FM, ZAKOWSKI MF, MILLER VA, SCHER HI, KRIS MG: Efficacy of cytotoxic agents against human tumor xenografts is markedly enhanced by coadministration of ZD1839 (Iressa), an inhibitor of EGFR tyrosine kinase. Clin. Cancer Res. (2000) 6(12):4885-4892.
58. WILLIAMS KJ, TELFER BA, STRATFORD IJ, WEDGE SR: ZD1839 ('Iressa'), a specific oral epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitor, potentiates radiotherapy in a human colorectal cancer xenograft model. Br. J. Cancer (2002) 86(7):1157-1161.
59. HAMMOND LA, FIGUEROA J, SCHWARTZBERG L et al.: Feasibility and pharmacokinetic (PK) trial of ZD1839 (Iressa), an epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI), in combination with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and leucovorin (LV) in patients with advanced colorectal cancer. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2001) (Abstract).
60. CHO CD, FISHER GA, HALSEY JZ, ADVANI RH, YUEN AR, SIKIC BI: A Phase I study of ZD1839 (Iressa) in combination with oxaliplatin, 5-fluorouracil, and leucovorin in advanced solid malignancies. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2002) (Abstract).
61. SALTZ LB, RUBIN M, HOCHSTER H et al.: Cetuximab (IMC-225) plus irinotecan (CPT-11) in active in CPT-11-refractory colorectal cancer (CRC) that expresses epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2001) (Abstract).
62. SALTZ L, MEROPOL N, LOEHRER P, WAKSAL H, NEEDLE M, MAYER R: Single agent IMC-C225 (Erbitux) has activity in CPT-11-refractory colorectal cancer (CRC) that expresses the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2002) (Abstract).
63. ROSENBERG A, LOEHRER PJ, NEEDLE M et al.: Erbitux (IMC-C225) plus weekly irinotecan (CPT-11), Fruorouracil (5FU) and leucovorin in colorectal cancer that expresses the epidermal growth factor receptor. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2002) (Abstract).
64. SCHOFFSKI P, LUTZ M, FOLPRECHT G et al.: Cetuximab (C225) plus irinotecan (CPT-11) plus infusional 5-FU-folinic acid is safe and active in metastatic colorectal cancer (MCRC), that expresses epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2002) (Abstract).
65. STOEHLMACHER J, BRABENDER J, SHIROTA Y et al.: Association between mRNA expression level of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), immunohistochemistry (IHC) and response to the EGFR-Inhibitor C225 in advanced colorectal carcinoma. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2001) (Abstract).
66. KERBEL R, FOLKMAN J: Clinical translation of angiogenesis inhibitors. Nat. Rev. Cancer (2002) 2(10):727-739.
67. CARMICHAEL J, WHITE J, KOSUGE D, HEWETT P, MURRAY J, MCCULLOCH T: Increased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-D (VegFD) is associated with poor survival in colorectal cancer. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2000) (Abstract).
68. KABBINAVAR F, HURWITZ HI, FEHRENBACHER L et al.: Phase II, randomized trial comparing bevacizumab plus fluorouracil (FU)/leucovorin (LV) with FU/LV alone in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. (2003) 21(1):60-65.
69. GIANTONIO B, LEVY D, CATALANO P, O'DWYER P, BENSON A: Incorporating angiogenesis inhibition with bevacizumab (anti-VEGF) into frontline chemotherapy with irinotecan (CPT-11), fluorouracil and leucovorin (FU/LV) for advanced colorectal cancer (advCRC): a toxicity analysis of ECOG study E2200. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2002) (Abstract).
70. EBERHART CE, COFFEY RJ, RADHIKA A, GIARDIELLO FM, FERRENBACH S, DUBOIS RN: Up-regulation of cyclooxygenase 2 gene expression in human colorectal adenomas and adenocarcinomas. Gastroenterology (1994) 107(4):1183-1188.
71. SHEEHAN KM, SHEAHAN K, O'DONOGHUE DP et al.: The relationship between cyclooxygenase-2 expression and colorectal cancer. JAMA (1999) 282(13):1254-1257.
72. TSUJII M, KAWANO S, TSUJI S, SAWAOKA H, HORI M, DUBOIS RN: Cyclooxygenase regulates angiogenesis induced by colon cancer cells. Cell (1998) 93(5):705-716.
73. ELDER DJ, HALTON DE, HAGUE A, PARASKEVA C: Induction of apoptotic cell death in human colorectal carcinoma cell lines by a cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)-selective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug: independence from COX-2 protein expression. Clin. Cancer Res. (1997) 3(10):1679-1683.
74. CHEN WS, WEI SJ, LIU JM, HSIAO M, KOU-LIN J, YANG WK: Tumor invasiveness and liver metastasis of colon cancer cells correlated with cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression and inhibited by a COX-2-selective inhibitor, etodolac. Int. J. Cancer (2001) 91(6):894-899.
75. STEINBACH G, LYNCH PM, PHILLIPS RK et al.: The effect of celecoxib, a cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, in familial adenomatous polyposis. N. Engl. J. Med. (2000) 342(26):1946-1952.
76. LIN E, MORRIS J, CHAU N, CRANE C, WOLFF R, JANJAN N et al.: Celcoxib attenuated capecitabine induced hand-and-foot syndrome and diarrhea and improved time to tumor progression in metastatic colorectal cancer. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2002) (Abstract).
77. BLANKE C, BENSON A, III, DRAGOVITCH T et al.: A phase II trial of celecoxib, irinotecan, 5-FU, and leucovorin in patients with unresectable or metastatic colorectal cancer. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2002) (Abstract).
78. PRENDERGAST GC, RANE N: Farnesyltransferase inhibitors: mechanism and applications. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs (2001) 10(12):2105-2116.
79. MANGUES R, SEIDMAN I, PELLICER A, GORDON JW: Tumorigenesis and male sterility in transgenic mice expressing a MMTV/N-ras oncogene. Oncogene (1990) 5(10):1491-1497.
80. ROWINSKY EK, WINDLE JJ, VON HOFF DD: Ras protein farnesyltransferase: A strategic target for anticancer therapeutic development. J. Clin. Oncol. (1999) 17(11):3631-3652.
81. CUNNINGHAM D, DE GRAMONT A, SCHEITHAUER W et al.: Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of farnesyltransferase inhibitor R115777 (Zarnestra) in advanced refractory colorectal cancer. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. (2002) (Abstract).
82. HOOVER HC Jr, BRANDHORST JS, PETERS LC et al.: Adjuvant active specific immunotherapy for human colorectal cancer: 6.5-year median follow-up of a Phase III prospectively randomized trial. J. Clin. Oncol. (1993) 11(3):390-399.
83. HARRIS JE, RYAN L, HOOVER HC Jr et al.: Adjuvant active specific immunotherapy for stage II and III colon cancer with an autologous tumor cell vaccine: Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Study E5283. J. Clin. Oncol. (2000) 18(1):148-157.
84. VERMORKEN JB, CLAESSEN AM, VAN TINTEREN H et al.: Active specific immunotherapy for stage II and stage III human colon cancer: a randomised trial. Lancet (1999) 353(9150):345-350.
85. FOON KA, JOHN WJ, CHAKRABORTY M et al.: Clinical and immune responses in advanced colorectal cancer patients treated with anti-idiotype monoclonal antibody vaccine that mimics the carcinoembryonic antigen. Clin. Cancer Res. (1997) 3(8):1267-1276.
86. MARSHALL JL, HOYER RJ, TOOMEY MA et al.: Phase I study in advanced cancer patients of a diversified prime-and-boost vaccination protocol using recombinant vaccinia virus and recombinant nonreplicating avipox virus to elicit anti-carcinoembryonic antigen immune responses. J. Clin. Oncol. (2000) 18(23):3964-3973.
87. VON MEHREN M, ARLEN P, GULLEY J et al.: The influence of granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor and prior chemotherapy on the immunological response to a vaccine (ALVAC-CEA B7.1) in patients with metastatic carcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res. (2001) 7(5):1181-1191.
88. WATANABE T, WU TT, CATALANO PJ et al.: Molecular predictors of survival after adjuvant chemotherapy for colon cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. (2001) 344(16):1196-1206.
89. GRYFE R, KIM H, HSIEH ET et al.: Tumor microsatellite instability and clinical outcome in young patients with colorectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. (2000) 342(2):69-77.
90. ALLEGRA C: Thymidylate synthase levels: prognostic, predictive, or both? J. Clin. Oncol. (2002) 20(7):1711-1713.
91. LEICHMAN CG, LENZ HJ, LEICHMAN L et al.: Quantitation of intratumoral thymidylate synthase expression predicts for disseminated colorectal cancer response and resistance to protracted-infusion fluorouracil and weekly leucovorin. J. Clin. Oncol. (1997) 15(10):3223-3229.
92. ASCHELE C, LONARDI S, MONFARDINI S: Thymidylate synthase expression as a predictor of clinical response to fluoropyrimidine-based chemotherapy in advanced colorectal cancer. Cancer Treat. Rev. (2002) 28(1):27-47.
93. MCLEOD H, MARSH S, MCKAY J, CASSIDY J: Thymidylate synthase pharmacogenetics in colorectal cancer. Proc. Am. Clin. Oncol. (2001) (Abstract).
94. ETIENNE MC, CHAZAL M, LAURENT-PUIG P et al.: Prognostic value of tumoral thymidylate synthase and p53 in metastatic colorectal cancer patients receiving fluorouracil-based chemotherapy: phenotypic and genotypic analyses. J. Clin. Oncol. (2002) 20(12):2832-2843.
95. EDLER D, GLIMELIUS B, HALLSTROM M et al.: Thymidylate synthase expression in colorectal cancer: a prognostic and predictive marker of benefit from adjuvant fluorouracil-based chemotherapy. J. Clin. Oncol. (2002) 20(7):1721-1728.
96. METZGER R, DANENBERG K, LEICHMAN CG et al.: High basal level gene expression of thymidine phosphorylase (platelet-derived endothelial cell growth factor) in colorectal tumors is associated with nonresponse to 5-fluorouracil. Clin. Cancer Res. (1998) 4(10):2371-2376.
97. SALONGA D, DANENBERG KD, JOHNSON M et al.: Colorectal tumors responding to 5-fluorouracil have low gene expression levels of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase, thymidylate synthase, and thymidine phosphorylase. Clin. Cancer Res. (2000) 6(4):1322-1327.