Endogenous neurotoxins from tryptophan

Toxicon

Volumn 39, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 61-73

  Stone, Trevor W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Kynurenic acid; Kynurenines; Neurodegeneration; Neuroprotection; Quinolinic acid; Tryptophan

Indexed keywords

3 HYDROXYKYNURENINE; 4 CHLORO 3 HYDROXYANTHRANILIC ACID; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; EXCITOTOXIN; FREE RADICAL; GLUTAMATE RECEPTOR; GLUTAMIC ACID; KYNURENIC ACID; KYNURENINE; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR; NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENT; NEUROTOXIN; NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE; QUINOLINIC ACID; TRYPTOPHAN;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ARTICLE; BRAIN INJURY; BRAIN PROTECTION; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INFECTION; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; DRUG DESIGN; HUMAN; HUNTINGTON CHOREA; NERVE CELL LESION; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NEUROPROTECTION; NEUROTOXICITY; NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; TOXIN SYNTHESIS; TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK;

MAMMALIA;

EID: 0035239223     PISSN: 00410101     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0041-0101(00)00156-2     Document Type: Short Survey

References (168)

1. Achim C.L., Masliah E., Heyes M.P., Sarnacki P.G., Hilty C., Baldwin M., Wiley C.A. Macrophage activation factors in the brains of AIDS patients. J. Neuro-AIDS. 1:1996;1-16.
2. Alberati-Giani D., Cesura A.M. Expression of the kynurenine enzymes in macrophages and microglial cells: regulation by immune modulators. Amino Acids. 14:1998;251-255.
3. Alberati-Giani D., Ricciardi-Castagnoli P., Kohler C., Cesura A.M. Regulation of the kynurenine metabolic pathway by interferon-gamma in murine cloned macrophages and microglial cells. J. Neurochem. 66:1996;996-1004.
4. Baran H., Jellinger K., Derecke L. Kynurenine metabolism in Alzheimer's disease. J. Neural Transm. 106:1999;165-181.
5. Baratte S., Molinari A., Veneroni O., Speciale C., Benatti L., Salvati P. Temporal and spatial changes of quinolinic acid immunoreactivity in the gerbil hippocampus following transient cerebral ischemia. Mol. Brain Res. 59:1998;50-57.
6. Batshaw M.L., Robinson M.B., Hyland K., Djali S., Heyes M.P. Quinolinic acid in children with congenital hyperammonaemia. Ann. Neurol. 34:1993;676-681.
7. Bazzett T.J., Becker J.B., Falik R.C., Albin R.L. Chronic intrastriatal quinolinic acid produces reversible changes in perikaryal calbinidin and parvalbumin immunoreactivity. Neuroscience. 60:1994;837-841.
8. Bazzett T.J., Becker J.B., Kaatz K.W., Albin R.L. Chronic intrastriatal dialytic administration of quinolinic acid produces selective neural degeneration. Experimental Neurology. 120:1993;177-185.
9. Beagles K.E., Morrison P.F., Heyes M.P. Quinolinic acid in vivo synthesis rates, extracellular concentrations, and intercompartmental distributions in normal and immune-activated brain as determined by multiple-isotope microdialysis. J. Neurochem. 70:1998;281-291.
10. Beal M.F., Ferrante R.J., Swartz K.J., Kowall N.W. Chronic quinolinic acid lesions in rats closely resemble Huntington's disease. J. Neurosci. 11:1991;1649-1659.
11. Beal M.F., Kowall N.W., Ellison D.W., Mazurek M.F., Swartz K.J., Martin J.B. Replication of the neurochemical characteristics of Huntington's disease by quinolinic acid. Nature. 321:1986;168-171.
12. Beal M.F., Kowall N.W., Ferrante R.J., Cippolloni P.B. Quinolinic acid lesions in primates as a model of Huntington's disease. Ann. Neurol. 26:1989;137.
13. Beal M.F., Kowall N.W., Swartz K.J., Ferrante R.J., Martin J.B. Differential sparing of somatostatin-neuropeptide Y and cholinergic neurons following striatal excitotoxin lesions. Synapse. 3:1989;38-47.
14. Beal M.F., Matson W.R., Storey E., Milbury P., Ryan E.A., Ogawa T., Bird E.D. Kynurenic acid concentrations are reduced in Huntington's disease cerebral cortex. J. Neurological Sci. 108:1992;80-87.
15. Beal M.F., Matson W.R., Swartz K.J., Gamache P.H., Bird E.D. Kynurenine pathway measurements in Huntington's disease striatum: evidence for reduced formation of kynurenic acid. J. Neurochem. 55:1990;1327-1339.
16. Beal M.F., Swartz K.J., Finn S.F., Mazurek M.F., Kowall N.W. Neurochemical characterization of excitotoxin lesions in the cerebral cortex. J. Neurosci. 11:1991;147-158.
17. Behan W.M.H., McDonald M., Darlington L.G., Stone T.W. Oxidative stress as a mechanism for quinolinic acid-induced hippocampal damage: protection by melatonin and deprenyl. Brit. J. Pharmacol. 128:1999;1754-1760.
18. Behan, W.M.H., Stone, T.W., 2000. The role of kynurenines in the neurotoxic action of kainic acid. Brit. J. Pharmacol., in press.
19. Bell M.J., Kochanek P.M., Heyes M.P., Wisniewski S.R., Sinz E.H., Clark R.S.B., Blight A.R., Marion D.W., Adelson P.D. Quinolinic acid in the cerebrospinal fluid of children after traumatic injury. Crit. Care Med. 27:1999;493-497.
20. Birch P.J., Grossman C.J., Hayes A.G. Kynurenic acid antagonises responses to NMDA via an action at the strychnine-insensitive glycine site. Europ. J. Pharmacol. 154:1988;85-87.
21. Blight A.R., Cohen T.I., Saito K., Heyes M.P. Quinolinic acid accumulation and functional deficits following experimental spinal cord injury. Brain. 118:1995;735-752.
22. Blight A.R., Leroy E.C. Jr., Heyes M.P. Quinolinic acid accumulation in injured spinal cord: time course, distribution, and species differences between rat and guinea pig. J. Neurotrauma. 14:1997;89-98.
23. Blight A.R., Saito K., Heyes M.P. Increased levels of the excitotoxin quinolinic acid in spinal cord following contusion injury. Brain Res. 632:1993;314-316.
24. Boegman R.J., Parent A. Differential sensitivity of NPY somatostatin and NADPH-diaphorase containing neurons in rat cortex and striatum to quinolinic acid. Brain Res. 445:1988;358-362.
25. Boegman R.J., Smith Y., Parent A. Quinolinic acid does not spare striatal NPY immunoreactive neurons. Brain Res. 415:1987;178-182.
26. Bordelon Y.M., Chesselet M.-F., Nelson D., Welsh F., Erecinska M. Energetic dysfunction in quinolinic acid-lesioned rat striatum. J. Neurochem. 69:1997;1629-1693.
27. Brew B.J., Corbeil J., Pemberton L., Evans L., Saito K., Penny R., Cooper D.A., Heyes M.P. Quinolinic acid production is related to macrophage tropic isolates of HIV-1. J. Neurovirol. 1:1995;369-374.
28. Brouwers P., Heyes M.P., Moss H.A., Wolters P.L., Poplack D.G., Markey S.P., Pizzo P.A. Quinolinic acid in the cerebrospinal fluid of children with symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus type-1 disease - relationships to clinical status and therapeutic response. J. Infect. Dis. 168:1993;1380-1386.
29. Burns L.H., Pakzaban P., Deacon T.W., Brownell A.L., Tatter S.B., Jenkins B.G., Isacson O. Selective putaminal excitotoxic lesions in non-human primates model the movement disorder of Huntington's disease. Neuroscience. 64:1995;1007-1017.
30. Carlock L., Walker P.D., Shan Y., Gutridge K. Transcription of the Huntington's disease gene during the quinolinic acid excitotoxic cascade. NeuroReport. 6:1995;1121-1124.
31. Chao C.C., Hu S., Peterson P.K. Glia: the not so innocent bystanders. J. Neurovirol. 2:1996;234-239.
32. Coe C.L., Reyes T.M., Pauza C.D., Reinhard J.F. Quinolinic acid and lymphocyte subsets in the intrathecal compartment as biomarkers of SIV infection and simian AIDS. Aids Res. & Human Retroviruses. 13:1997;891-897.
33. Connick J.H., Carla V., Moroni F., Stone T.W. Increase in kynurenic acid in Huntington's disease motor cortex. J. Neurochem. 52:1989;958-987.
34. Connick J.H., Stone T.W. The effects of quinolinic and β-kainic acids on the release of endogenous glutamate from rat brain slices. Biochem. Pharmacol. 35:1986;3631-3635.
35. Connick J.H., Stone T.W. Quinolinic acid effects on amino acid release from the rat cerebral cortex in vitro and in vivo. Brit. J. Pharmacol. 93:1988;868-876.
36. Davies S.W., Roberts P.J. No evidence for preservation of somatostatin-containing neurones after intrastriatal injections of quinolinic acid. Nature. 327:1987;326-329.
37. Dursun S.M., Farrar G., Handley S.L., Rickards H., Betts T., Corbett J.A. Elevated plasma kynurenine in Tourette syndrome. Molec. Chem. Neuropathol. 21:1994;55-60.
38. Dykens J.A., Sullivan S.G., Stern A. Oxidative reactivity of the tryptophan metabolites 3-hydroxyanthranilate, cinnabarinate, quinolinate and picolinate. Biochem. Pharmacol. 36:1987;211-217.
39. Dykens J.A., Sullivan S.G., Stern A. Glucose metabolism and hemoglobin reactivity in human red blood cells exposed to the tryptophan metabolites 3-hydroxyanthranilate, quinolinate and picolinate. Biochem. Pharmacol. 38:1989;1555-1562.
40. Eastman C.L., Guilarte T.R. Cytotoxicity of 3-hydroxykynurenine in a neuronal hybrid cell line. Brain Res. 495:1989;225-231.
41. Eastman C.L., Guilarte T.R. The role of hydrogen peroxide in the in vitro cytotoxicity of 3-hydroxykynurenine. Neurochem. Res. 15:1990;1101-1107.
42. Ellison D.W., Beal M.F., Mazurek M.F., Malloy J.R., Bird E.D., Martin J.B. Amino acid neurotransmitter abnormalities in Huntington's disease and the quinolinic acid animal model of Huntington's disease. Brain. 110:1987;1657-1673.
43. Espey M.G., Chernyshev O.N., Reinhard J.F. Jr., Namboodiri M.A.A., Colton C.A. Activated human microglia produce the excitotoxin quinolinic acid. NeuroReport. 8:1997;431-434.
44. Espey M.G., Moffett J.R., Namboodiri M.A.A. Temporal and spatial changes of quinolinic acid immunoreactivity in the immune system of lipopolysaccharide-stimulated mice. J. Leukocyte Biol. 57:1995;199-206.
45. Ferrante R.J., Beal M.F., Kowall N.W., Richardson E.P. Jr., Martin J.B. Sparing of acetylcholinesterase-containing striatal neurons in Huntington's disease. Brain Res. 411:1987;162-166.
46. Figueredo-Cardenas G., Anderson K.D., Chen Q., Veenman C.L., Reiner A. Relative survival of striatal projection neurones and interneurones after intrastriatal injection of quinolinic acid in rats. Exp. Neurol. 129:1994;37-56.
47. Figueredo-Cardenas G., Harris C.L., Anderson K.D., Reiner A. Relative resistance of striatal neurones containing calbindin or parvalbumin to quinolinic acid-mediated excitotoxicity compared to other striatal neuron types. Exp. Neurol. 149:1998;356-372.
48. Flanagan E.M., Erickson J.B., Viveros O.H., Chang S.Y., Reinhard J.F. Jr. Neurotoxin quinolinic acid is selectively elevated in spinal cords of rats with experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Neurochem. 64:1995;1192-1196.
49. Forloni G.L., Angeretti N., Rizzi M., Vezzani A. Chronic infusion of quinolinic acid in rat striatum: effects on discrete neuronal populations. J. Neurol. Sci. 108:1992;129-136.
50. Galarraga E., Surmeier D.J., Kitai S.T. Quinolinate and kainate neurotoxicity in neostriatal cultures is potentiated by co-culturing with neocortical neurons. Brain Res. 512:1990;269-276.
51. Giulian D., Vaca K., Noonan C.A. Secretion of neurotoxins by mononuclear phagocytes infected with HIV-1. Science. 250:1990;1593-1596.
52. Giulian D., Wendt E., Vaca K., Noonan C.A. The envelope glycoprotein of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 stimulates release of neurotoxins from monocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 90:1993;2773-2796.
53. Gramsbergen J.B.P., Schmidt W., Turski W.A., Schwarcz R. Age-related changes in kynurenic acid production in rat brain. Brain Res. 588:1992;1-5.
54. Halperin J.J., Heyes M.P. Neuroactive kynurenines in Lyme borreliosis. Neurology. 42:1992;43-50.
55. Hansson O., Petersen A., Leist M., Nicotera P., Castilho R.F., Brundin P. Transgenic mice expressing Huntington's disease mutation are resistant to quinolinic acid-induced striatal excitotoxicity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA). 96:1999;8727-8732.
56. Heyes M.P., Achim C.L., Wiley C.A., Major E.O., Saito K., Markey S.P. Human microglia convert L-tryptophan into the neurotoxin quinolinic acid. Biochem. J. 320:1996;595-597.
57. Heyes M.P., Brew B.J., Martin A., Price R.W., Salazar A.M., Sidtis J.J., Yergey J.A., Mourdian M.M., Sadler A.E., Keilp J., Rubinow D., Markey S.P. Quinolinic acid in cerebrospinal fluid and serum in HIV-1 infection: relationship to clinical and neurologic status. Ann. Neurol. 29:1991;202-209.
58. Heyes M.P., Brew B.J., Saito K., Quearry B.J., Price R.W., Lee K., Bhalla R.B., Der M., Markey S.P. Inter-relationships between neuroactive kynurenines, neopterin and Beta2 microglobulin in CSF and serum of HIV-1 infected patients. J. Neuroimmunol. 40:1992;71-80.
59. Heyes M.P., Jordan E.K., Lee K., Saito K., Frank J.A., Snoy P.J., Markey S.P., Gravell M. Relationship of neurologic status in macaques infected with the simian immunodeficiency virus to cerebrospinal fluid quinolinic acid and kynurenic acid. Brain Res. 570:1992;237-250.
60. Heyes M.P., Lackner A. Increased cerebrospinal fluid quinolinic acid, kynurenic acid and L-kynurenine in acute septicemia. J. Neurochem. 55:1990;338-341.
61. Heyes M.P., Mefford I.N., Quearry B.J., Dedhia M., Lackner A. Increased ratio of quinolinic acid to kynurenic acid in cerebrospinal fluid of D retrovirus-infected rhesus macaques: relationship to clinical and viral status. Ann. Neurol. 27:1990;666-675.
62. Heyes M.P., Nowak T.S. Jr. Delayed increases in regional brain quinolinic acid follow transient ischemia in the gerbil. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 10:1990;660-667.
63. Heyes M.P., Quearry B.J., Markey S.P. Systemic endotoxin increases L-tryptophan, 5-hydroxyinoleacetic acid, 3-hydroxykynurenine and quinolinic acid content of mouse cerebral cortex. Brain Res. 491:1989;173-179.
64. Heyes M.P., Rubinow D., Lane C., Markey S.P. Cerebrospinal fluid quinolinic acid concentrations are increased in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann. Neurol. 26:1989;275-277.
65. Heyes M.P., Saito K., Crowley J.S., Davis L.E., Demitrack M.A., Der M., Dilling L.A., Elia J., Kruesi M.J.P., Lackner A., Larsen S.A., Lee K., Leonard H.L., Markey S.P., Martin A., Milstein S., Mouradian M.M., Pranzatelli M.R., Quearry B.J., Salazar A., Smith M., Straus S.E., Sunderland T., Swedo S.E., Tourtellotte W.W. Quinolinic acid and kynurenine pathway metabolism in inflammatory and non-inflammatory neurologic disease. Brain. 115:1992;1249-1273.
66. Heyes M.P., Saito K., Jocobowitz D., Markey S.P., Takikawa O., Vickers J.H. Poliovirus induces indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase and quinolinic acid synthesis in macaque brain. FASEB J. 6:1992;2977-2989.
67. Heyes M.P., Saito K., Lackner A., Wiley C.A., Achim C.L., Markey S.P. Sources of the neurotoxin quinolinic acid in the brain of HIV-1 infected patients and retrovirus-infected macaques. FASEB J. 12:1998;881-896.
68. Heyes M.P., Saito K., Markey S.P. Human macrophages convert L-tryptophan into the neurotoxin quinolinic acid. Biochem. J. 283:1992;633-635.
69. Heyes M.P., Saito K., Milstein S., Schiff S.J. Quinolinic acid in tumors, hemorrhage and bacterial infections of the CNS in children. J. Neurol. Sci. 133:1995;112-118.
70. Hiraku Y., Inoue S., Oikawa S., Yamamoto K., Tada S., Nishino K., Kawanishi S. Metal-mediated oxidative damage to cellular and isolated DNA by certain tryptophan metabolites. Carcinogenesis. 16:1995;349-356.
71. Jauch D., Urbanska E.M., Guidetti P., Bird E.D., Vonsattel J.-P.G., Whetsell W.O. Jr, Schwarcz R. Dysfunction of brain kynurenic acid metabolism in Huntington's disease: focus on kynurenine aminotransferases. J. Neurol. Sci. 130:1995;39-47.
72. Joel D., Ayalon L., Tarrasch R., Veenman L., Feldon J., Weiner I. Electrolytic lesions of globus pallidus ameliorates the behavioral and neurodegenerative effects of quinolinic acid lesion of the striatum. Brain Res. 78:1998;143-148.
73. Jordan E.K., Heyes M.P. Virus isolation and quinolinic acid in primary and chronic simian immunodeficiency virus infection. AIDS. 7:1993;1173-1179.
74. Kalisch B.E., Jhamandas K., Beninger R.J., Boegman R.J. Modulation of quinolinic acid-induced depletion of striatal NADPH diaphorase and enkephalinergic neurons by inhibition of nitric oxide synthase. Brain Res. 817:1999;151-162.
75. Kerr S.J., Armati P.J., Brew B.J. Neurocytotoxicity of quinolinic acid in human brain cultures. J. Neurovirol. 1:1995;375-380.
76. Kerr S.J., Armati P.J., Guillemin G.J., Brew B.J. Chronic exposure of human neurones to quinolinic acid results in neuronal changes consistent with AIDS dementia complex. AIDS. 12:1998;355-363.
77. Kerr S.J., Armati P.J., Pemberton L.A., Smythe G., Tattam B., Brew B.J. Kynurenine pathway inhibition reduced neurotoxicity of HIV-1-infected macrophages. Neurology. 49:1997;1671-1681.
78. Khaspekov L., Kida E., Victorov I., Mossakowski M.J. Neurotoxic effect induced by quinolinic acid in dissociated cell culture of mouse hippocampus. J. Neurosci. Res. 22:1989;150-157.
79. Kim J.P., Choi D.W. Quinolinate neurotoxicity in cortical cell culture. Neuroscience. 23:1987;423-432.
80. Kish S.J., Du F., Parks D.A., Robitaille Y., Ball M.J., Schut L., Hornykiewicz O., Schwarcz R. Quinolinic acid catabolism is increased in cerebellum of patients with dominantly inherited olivopontocerebellar atrophy. Ann. Neurol. 29:1991;100-104.
81. Koennecke L.A., Zito M.A., Proescholdt M.G., van Rooijen N., Heyes M.P. Depletion of systemic macrophages by liposome-encapsulated clodronate attenuates increases in brain quinolinic acid during CNS-localized and systemic immune activation. J. Neurochem. 73:1999;770-779.
82. Koh J.-Y., Choi D.W. Cultured striatal neurones containing NADPH-diaphorase or acetylcholinesterase are selectively resistant to injury by NMDA receptor agonists. Brain Res. 446:1988;374-378.
83. Koh J.-Y., Peters S., Choi D.W. Neurones containing NADPH-diaphorase are selectively resistant to quinolinate toxicity. Science. 234:1986;73-76.
84. Lees G.J. The possible contribution of microglia and macrophages to delayed neuronal death after ischemia. J. Neurol. Sci. 114:1993;119-122.
85. Lipton S.A. Neuronal injury associated with HIV-1: approaches to treatment. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. 38:1998;159-177.
86. MacKenzie G.M., Jenner P., Marsden C.D. The effect of nitric oxide synthase inhibition on quinolinic acid toxicity in the rat striatum. Neuroscience. 67:1995;357-371.
87. Maeda K., Kaneda H., Whetsell W.O., Tamminaga C.A. Neurochemical and metabolic consequences of elevated cerebrospinal fluid quinolinic acid concentrations in rat brain. Neurosci. Res. 29:1997;303-309.
88. Martin A., Heyes M.P., Salazar A.M., Kampen D.L., Williams J., Law W.A., Coats M.E., Markey S.P. Progressive slowing of reaction time and increasing cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of quinolinic acid in HIV-infected individuals. J. Neuropsychiat. Clin. Neurosci. 4:1992;270-279.
89. Masuo Y., Montagne M.N., Pelaprat D., Scherman D., Rostene W. Regulation of neurotensin-containing neurones in the rat striatum. Effects of unilateral striatal lesions with quinolinic acid and ibotenic acid on neurotensin content and its binding site density. Brain Res. 520:1990;6-13.
90. Misztal M., Skangiel-Kramska J., Niewiadomska G., Danysz W. Subchronic intraventricular infusion of quinolinic acid produces working memory impairment - a model of progressive excitotoxicity. Neuropharmacology. 35:1996.
91. Moffett J.R., Els T., Espey M.G., Walter S.A., Streit W.J., Namboodiri M.A.A. Quinolinate immunoreactivity in experimental rat brain tumors is present in macrophages but not in astrocytes. Exp. Neurol. 144:1997;287-301.
92. Moffett J.R., Espey M.G., Gaudet S.J., Namboodiri M.A.A. Antibodies to quinolinic acid reveal localization in select immune cells rather than neurones or astroglia. Brain Res. 623:1993;337-340.
93. Moffett J.R., Espey M.G., Namboodiri M.A.A. Antibodies to quinolinic acid and the determination of its cellular distribution within the rat immune system. Cell and Tissue Res. 278:1994;461-469.
94. Moroni F., Lombardi G., Moneti G., Aldinio C. The excitotoxin quinolinic acid is present in the brain of several animal species and its cortical content increases during the ageing process. Neurosci. Lett. 47:1984;51-55.
95. Moroni F., Russi P., Carla V., Lombardi G. Kynurenic acid is present in the rat brain and its content increases during development and aging processes. Neurosci. Lett. 94:1988;145-150.
96. Mourdian M.M., Heyes M.P., Pan J.-B., Heuser I.J.E., Markey S.P., Chase T.N. No changes in central quinolinic acid levels in Alzheimer's disease. Neurosci. Lett. 105:1989;233-238.
97. Nagra R.M., Heyes M.P., Wiley C.A. Viral load and its relationship to quinolinic acid, TNF alpha, and IL-6 levels in the CNS of retroviral infected mice. Mol. Clin. Neuropath. 22:1994;143-160.
98. Nakagami Y., Saito H., Katsuki H. 3-hydroxykynurenine toxicity on the rat striatum in vivo. Jpn. J. Pharmacol. 71:1996;183-186.
99. Nakai M., Qin Z.H., Wang Y., Chase T.N. Free radical scavenger OPC-14117 attenuates quinolinic acid-induced NFκB activation and apoptosis in rat striatum. Molec. Brain Res. 64:1999;59-68.
100. Nakao N., Brundin P. Effects of α-phenyl-t-butyl nitrone on neuronal survival and motor function following intrastriatal injections of quinolinate or 3-nitropropionic acid. Neuroscience. 76:1997;749-761.
101. Namboodiri A.M.A., Venkateshan C.N.S., Narayanan R., Blinder K., Moffett J.R., Gajdusek D.C., Gravell M., Gibbs J. Increased quinolinate immunoreactivity in the peripheral blood macrocytes/macrophages from SIV-infected monkeys. J. Neurovirol. 2:1996;433-438.
102. Naritsin D.B., Saito K., Markey S.P., Heyes M.P. Metabolism of L-tryptophan to kynurenate and quinolinate in the central nervous system: effects of 6-chlorotryptophan and 4-chloro-3-hydroxyanthranilate. J. Neurochem. 65:1995;2217-2226.
103. A receptor changes in the substantia nigra of the rat following quinolinic acid lesions in the striatum closely resemble Huntington's disease. Neuroscience. 66:1995;507-521.
104. Norman A.B., Ford L.M., Sanberg P.R. Differential loss of neurochemical markers following quinolinic acid-induced lesions of rat striatum. Exp. Neurol. 114:1991;132-135.
105. Nottet H.S.L.M., Flanagan E.M., Flanagan C.R., Gelbard H.A., Gendelman H.E., Reinhard J.F. The regulation of quinolinic acid in human immunodeficiency virus-infected monocytes. J. Neurovirol. 2:1996;111-117.
106. Ogawa T., Matson W.R., Beal M.F., Myers R.H., Bird E.D., Milbury P., Saso S. Kynurenine pathway abnormalities in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 42:1992;1702-1706.
107. Okuda S., Nishiyama N., Saito H., Katsuki H. Hydrogen peroxide-mediated neuronal cell death induced by an endogenous neurotoxin, 3-hydroxykynurenine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA). 93:1996;12553-12558.
108. Okuda S., Nishiyama N., Saito H., Katsuki H. 3-Hydroxykynurenine, an endogenous oxidative stress generator, causes neuronal cell death with apoptotic features and region selectivity. J. Neurochem. 70:1998;299-307.
109. Pearson S.J., Meldrum A., Reynolds G.P. An investigation of the activities of 3-hydroxykynureninase and kynurenine aminotransferase in the brain in Huntington's disease. J. Neural Trans. 102:1995;67-73.
110. Pearson S.J., Reynolds G.P. Determination of 3-hydroxykynurenine in human brain and plasma by HPLC with electrochemical detection: increased concentrations in hepatic encephalopathy. J. Chromatogr. 565:1991;436-440.
111. Pearson S.J., Reynolds G.P. Increased brain concentrations of a neurotoxin, 3-hydroxykynurenine, in Huntington's disease. Neurosci. Lett. 144:1992;199-201.
112. Pemberton L.A., Kerr S.J., Smythe G., Brew B.J. Quinolinic acid production by macrophages stimulated with IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha and IFN-alpha. J. Inter. Cytokine Res. 17:1997;589-595.
113. Perez-Severiano F., Escalante B., Rios C. Nitric oxide synthase inhibition prevents acute quinolinate-induced striatal neurotoxicity. Neurochem. Res. 23:1998;1297-1302.
114. Perkins M.N., Stone T.W. An iontophoretic investigation of the actions of convulsant kynurenines and their interaction with the endogenous excitant quinolinic acid. Brain Res. 247:1982;184-187.
115. Perkins M.N., Stone T.W. Quinolinic acid: regional variations in neuronal sensitivity. Brain Res. 259:1983;172-176.
116. Perkins M.N., Stone T.W. Pharmacology and regional variations of quinolinic acid-evoked excitations in the rat central nervous system. J. Pharm. Exp. Ther. 226:1983;551-557.
117. Popovich P.G., Reinhard J.F., Flanagan E.M., Stokes B.T. Elevation of the neurotoxin quinolinic acid occurs following spinal cord trauma. Brain Res. 633:1994;348-352.
118. Power C., Johnson R.T. HIV-1 associated dementia: clinical features and pathogenesis. Can. J. Neurol. Sci. 22:1995;92-100.
119. Qin Y., Soghomonian J.-J., Chesselet M.-F. Effects of quinolinic acid on messenger RNAs encoding somatostatin and glutamic acid decarboxylases in the striatum of adult rats. Exp. Neurol. 115:1992;200-211.
120. Rausch D.M., Heyes M.P., Murray E.A., Lendvay J., Sharer L.R., Ward J.M., Rehm S., Nohr D., Weihe E., Eiden L.E. Cytopathologic and neurochemical correlates of progression to motor/cognitive impairment in SIV-infected rhesus monkeys. J. Neuropath. Exp. Neurol. 53:1994;165-175.
121. Reinhard J.F. Jr. Altered tryptophan metabolism in mice with herpes simplex virus encephalitis: increases in spinal cord quinolinic acid. Neurochem. Res. 23:1998;661-665.
122. Reinhard J.F. Jr., Erickson J.B., Flanagan E.M. Quinolinic acid in neurological disease: opportunities for novel drug discovery. Adv. Pharmacol. 30:1994;85-126.
123. Reynolds G.P., Pearson S.J. Increased brain 3-hydroxykynurenine in Huntington's disease. Lancet. 2:1989;979-980.
124. Reynolds G.P., Pearson S.J., Halket J., Sandler M. Brain quinolinic acid in Huntington's disease. J. Neurochem. 50:1988;1959-1960.
125. Rickards H., Dursun S.M., Farrar G., Betts T., Corbett J.A., Handley S.L. Increased plasma kynurenine and its relationship to neopterin and tryptophan in Tourette's syndrome. Psychol. Med. 26:1996;857-862.
126. Rios C., Santamaria A. Quinolinic acid is a potent lipid peroxidant in rat brain homogenates. Neurochem. Res. 16:1991;1139-1143.
127. Roberts R.C., Ahn A., Swartz K., Beal M.F., DiFiglia M. Intrastriatal injections of quinolinic acid or kainic acid: differential patterns of cell survival and the effects of data analysis on outcome. Exp. Neurol. 124:1993;274-282.
128. Rugg E.L., Dunbar J.S., Latimer M., Winn P. Excitotoxic lesions of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus of the rat. Part I: Comparison of the effects of various excitotoxins with particular reference to the loss of immunohistochemically identified cholinergic neurones. Brain Res. 589:1992;181-193.
129. Saito K., Lackner A., Markey S.P., Heyes M.P. Cerebral cortex and lung indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase activity is increased in type D retrovirus infected macaques. Brain Res. 540:1991;353-356.
130. Saito K., Markey S.P., Heyes M.P. Effects of immune activation on quinolinic acid and neuroactive kynurenines in the mouse. Neuroscience. 51:1992;25-39.
131. Saito K., Markey S.P., Heyes M.P. 6-Chloro-D,L-tryptophan, 4-chloro-3-hydroxyanthranilate and dexamethasone attentuate quinolinic acid accumulation in brain and blood following systemic immune activation. Neurosci. Lett. 178:1994;211-215.
132. Saito K., Nowak T.S. Jr., Markey S.P., Heyes M.P. Delayed increases in kynurenine pathway metabolism in damaged brain regions following transient cerebral ischemia. J. Neurochem. 60:1992;180-192.
133. Sanni L.A., Thomas S.R., Tattam B.N., Moore D.E., Chaudhri G., Stocker R., Hunt N.H. Dramatic changes in oxidative trptophan metabolism along the kynurenine pathway in experimental cerebral and noncerebral malaria. Am. J. Pathol. 152:1998;611-619.
134. Santamaria A., Santamaria D., Diaz-Munoz M., Espinoza-Gonzalez V., Rios C. Effects of N-omega-nitro-L-arginine and L-arginine on quinolinic acid-induced lipid peroxidation. Toxicol. Lett. 93:1997;117-124.
135. Sardar A.M., Bell J.E., Reynolds G.P. Increased concentrations of the neurotoxin 3-hydroxykynurenine in the frontal cortex of HIV-1-positive patients. J. Neurochem. 64:1995;932-935.
136. Sardar A.M., Reynolds G.P. Frontal cortex indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase activity is increased in HIV-1-associated dementia. Neurosci. Lett. 187:1995;9-12.
137. Schwarcz R., Okuno E., White R.J., Bird E.D., Whetsell W.O. Jr. 3-Hydroxyanthranilate oxygenase activity is increased in the brains of Huntington's disease victims. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA). 85:1988;4079-4081.
138. Schwarcz R., Tamminga C.A., Kurlan R., Shoulson I. CSF levels of quinolinic acid in Huntington's disease and schizophrenia. Ann. Neurol. 24:1988;580-582.
139. Schwarcz R., Whetsell W.O. Jr., Mangano R.M. Quinolinic acid: an endogenous metabolite that produces axon-sparing lesions in rat brain. Science. 219:1983;316-318.
140. Sei Y., Paul I.A., Saito K., Layar R., Hartley J.W., Morse H.C. III, Skolnick P., Heyes M.P. Quinolinic acid levels in a murine retrovirus-induced immunodeficiency syndrome. J. Neurochem. 66:1996;296-302.
141. Shear D.A., Dong J., Gundy C.D., Haik-Creguer K.L., Dunbar G.L. Comparison of intrastriatal injections of quinolinic acid and 3-nitropropionic acid for use in animal models of Huntington's disease. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiat. 22:1998;1217-1240.
142. Shear D.A., Dong J., Haik-Oreguer K.L., Bazzett T.J., Albin R.L., Dunbar G.L. Chronic administration of quinolinic acid in the rat striatum causes spatial learning deficits in a radial arm water maze task. Exp. Neurol. 150:1998;305-311.
143. Sinz E.H., Kochanek P.M., Heyes M.P., Wisniewski S.R., Bell M.J., Clark R.S.B., DeKosky S.T., Blight A.R., Marion D.W. Quinolinic acid is increased in CSF and associated with mortality after traumatic brain injury in humans. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 18:1998;610-615.
144. Southgate G.S., Daya S., Potgieter B. Melatonin plays a protective role in quinolinic acid-induced neurotoxicity in the rat hippocampus. J. Chem. Neuroanat. 14:1998;151-156.
145. Stone T.W. Excitant activity of methyl derivatives of quinolinic acid on rat cortical neurones. Brit. J. Pharmacol. 81:1984;175-181.
146. Stone T.W. Quinolinic Acid and the Kynurenines. 1989;CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
147. Stone T.W. Neuropharmacology of quinolinic and kynurenic acids. Pharm. Revs. 45:1993;309-379.
148. Stone T.W. Subtypes of NMDA receptors. Gen. Pharmacol. 24:1993;825-832.
149. Stone T.W. The development and therapeutic potential of kynurenic acid and kynurenine derivatives for CNS neuroprotection. Trends in Pharmacol. Sci. 21:2000;149-154.
150. Stone, T.W., 2000b. Inhibitors of the kynurenine pathway. Europ. J. Med. Chem. 35, 179-186.
151. Stone T.W., Burton N.R. NMDA receptors and their endogenous ligands in vertebrate CNS. Progr. Neurobiol. 30:1988;333-368.
152. Stone T.W., Burton N.R., Smith D.A.S. Electrophysiology of quinolinic acid, kynurenic acid and related compounds in the CNS. Stone T.W. Quinolinic Acid and the Kynurenines. 1989;113-148 CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
153. Stone T.W., Connick J.H. Quinolinic acid and other kynurenines in the central nervous system. Neuroscience. 15:1985;597-617.
154. Stone T.W., Connick J.H., Winn P., Hastings M.H., English M. Endogenous excitoxic agents. Selective Neuronal Death Ciba Foundation Symp. 126:1987;204-220 Wiley, Chichester.
155. Stone T.W., Perkins M.N. Quinolinic acid, a potent endogenous excitant at amino acid receptors in CNS. Europ. J. Pharmacol. 72:1981;411-412.
156. Storey E., Cipolloni P.B., Ferrante R.J., Kowall N.W., Beal M.F. Movement disorder following excitotoxin lesions in primates. NeuroReport. 5:1994;1259-1261.
157. Storey E., Kowall N.W., Finn S.F., Mazurek M.F., Beal M.F. The cortical lesion of Huntington's disease - further neurochemical characterization and reproduction of some of the histological and neurochemical features by NMDA lesions of rat cortex. Ann. Neurol. 32:1992;526-534.
158. Sung V., Venkateshan C.N., Williamson L., Ward R., Espey M., Gibbs C.J. Jr., Moffett J.R., Namboodiri M.A.A. Immune-electron microscopy reveals that the excitotoxin quinolinate is associated with the plasma membrane in human peripheral blood monocytes/macrophages. Cell Tissue Res. 290:1997;633-639.
159. Susel Z., Engber T.M., Kuo S., Chase T.N. Prolonged infusion of quinolinic acid into rat striatum as an excitotoxic model of neurodegenerative disease. Neurosci. Lett. 121:1991;234-238.
160. Takeuchi Y., Komatsu H., Matsuo S., Hirai K., Kawase S., Nishimura A., Sawada T. Monoamine metabolites in the cerebrospinal fluid in infantile spinal muscular atrophy. NeuroReport. 5:1994;898-900.
161. Tatter S.B., Galpern W.R., Hoogeveen A.T., Isacson O. Effects of striatal excitotoxicity on huntingtin-like immunoreactivity. NeuroReport. 6:1995;1125-1129.
162. Thomas S.R., Mohr D., Stocker R. Nitric oxide inhibits indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase activity in interferon-gamma primed mononuclear phagocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1994;14457-14464.
163. Vogelgesang S.A., Heyes M.P., West S.G., Salazar A.M., Sfikakis P.P., Lipnick R.N., Klipple G.L., Tsokos G.C. Quinolinic acid in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and neuropsychiatric manifestations. J. Rheumatol. 23:1996;850-855.
164. Wada H., Ito H., Orimo H., Sato A. Kynurenine specifically increases in the cerebrospinal fluid of the aged rats. Biogenic amines. 10:1994;221-225.
165. Westerberg E., Magnusson K., Wieloch T., Ungerstedt U., Speciale C., Schwarcz R. Extracellular levels of quinolinic acid are moderately increased in rat striatum following severe insulin induced hypoglycaemia. Acta Physiol. Scand. 138:1990;417-422.
166. Whetsell W.O. Jr., Schwarcz R. Prolonged exposure to submicromolar concentrations of quinolinic acid causes excitotoxic damage in organotypic cultures of rat corticostriatal system. Neurosci. Lett. 97:1989;271-275.
167. Wood E.R., Bussey T.J., Phillips A.G. A glycine antagonist 7-chlorokynurenic acid attenuates ischemia-induced learning deficits. NeuroReport. 4:1993;151-154.
168. Yamamoto H., Shindo I., Egawa B., Horiguchi K. Kynurenic acid is decreased in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with infantile spasms. Ped. Neurol. 10:1994;9-12.