Porcine antimicrobial peptides: New prospects for ancient molecules of host defense

Veterinary Research

Volumn 31, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 277-296

  Zhang, Guolong ^a   Ross, Christopher R ^a   Blecha, Frank ^a  

^a KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Antimicrobial peptide; Cathelicidin; Defensin; Innate immunity; Pig

Indexed keywords

ANIMALIA; FUNGI; MAMMALIA; SUIDAE; SUS SCROFA;

ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; ANTIMICROBIAL CATIONIC PEPTIDE; CAP18 LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE BINDING PROTEIN; CAP18 LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE-BINDING PROTEIN; CATHELICIDIN ANTIMICROBIAL PEPTIDE; CECROPIN P1 LI; CECROPIN P1-LI; DEFENSIN; LUNG SURFACTANT; NK LYSIN; NK-LYSIN; PEPTIDE; PROTEIN; PROTEOLIPID;

AMINO ACID SEQUENCE; ANIMAL; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; CHEMISTRY; INNATE IMMUNITY; MOLECULAR GENETICS; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; SWINE;

AMINO ACID SEQUENCE; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; ANIMALS; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; ANTIMICROBIAL CATIONIC PEPTIDES; DEFENSINS; IMMUNITY, NATURAL; MOLECULAR SEQUENCE DATA; PEPTIDES; PROTEINS; PROTEOLIPIDS; PULMONARY SURFACTANTS; SWINE;

EID: 0034184327     PISSN: 09284249     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1051/vetres:2000121     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. Agerberth B., Lee J., Bergman T., Carlquist M., Boman H.G., Mutt V., Jörnvall H., Amino acid sequence of PR-39. Isolation from pig intestine of a new member of the family of proline-arginine-rich antibacterial peptides, Eur. J. Biochem. 202(1991)849-854.
2. Agerberth B., Grunewald J., Castanos-Velez E., Olsson B., Jörnvall H., Wigzell H. Eklund A., Gudmundsson G.H., Antibacterial components in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from healthy individuals and sarcoidosis patients. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 160 (1999) 283-290.
3. Ahmad I., Perkins W.R., Lupan D.M., Selsted M.E., Janoff A.S., Liposomal entrapment of the neutrophil-derived peptide indolicidin endows it with in vivo antifungal activity, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1237 (1995) 109-114.
4. +, Circ. Res. 83 (1998)730-737.
5. Andersson, M., Gunne H., Agerberth B., Boman A., Bergman T., Sillard R., Jörnvall H., Mutt V., Olsson B., Wigzell H., Dagerlind A., Boman H.G., Gudmundsson G.H., NK-lysin. a novel effector peptide of cytotoxic T and NK cells. Structure and cDNA cloning of the porcine form, induction by interleukin 2, antibacterial and antitumour activity, EMBO J. 14 ( 1995) 1615-1625.
6. Andersson M.. Curstedt T., Jörnvall H., Johansson J., An amphipathic helical motif common to tumourolytic polypeptide NK-lysin and pulmonary surfactant polypeptide SP-B, FEBS Lett. 362(1995)328-332.
7. Andersson, M., Holmgren A., Spyrou G., NK-lysin, a disulfide-containing effector peptide of T-lymphocytes, is reduced and inactivated by human thioredoxin reductase, J. Biol. Chem. 271(1996) 10116-10120.
8. Andersson M., Girard R., Cazenave P.-A., Interaction of NK Lysin, a peptide produced by cytotoxic lymphocytes, with endotoxin, Infect. Immun. 67(1999)201-205.
9. Andreu D., Rivas L., Animal antimicrobial peptides: an overview, Biopolymers 47 ( 1999) 415-433.
10. Aumelas A., Mangoni M., Roumestand C., Chiche L., Despaux E., Grassy G., Calas B., Chavanieu A., Synthesis and solution structure of the antimicrobial peptide protegrin-1, Eur. J. Biochem. 237 (1996) 575-583.
11. Bals R., Wang X., Zasloff M., Wilson J.M., The peptide antibiotic LL-37/hCAP-1 8 is expressed in epithelia of the human lung where it has broad antimicrobial activity at the airway surface, Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 95 (1998) 9541 -9546.
12. Bals R., Weiner D.J., Meegalla R.L., Wilson J.M., Transfer of a cathclicidin peptide antibioticgene restores bacterial killing in a cystic fibrosis xenograft model. J. Clin. Invest. 103 ( 1999) 1113-1117.
13. Bdeir K., Cane W., Canziani G., Chaiken I., Weisel J., Koschinsky ML., Lawn R.M., Bannerman P.G., Sachais B.S., Kuo A., Hancock M.A., Tomaszewski J., Raghunath P.N., Ganz T., Higazi A.A., Cincs D.B., Defensin promotes the binding of lipoprotein(a) to vascular matrix. Blood 94 (1999) 2007-2019.
14. Befus A.D., Mowat C., Gilchrist M., Hu J., Solomon S., Bateman A., Neutrophil defensins induce histamine secretion from mast cells: mechanisms of action, J. Imtnunol. 163 ( 1999) 947-953.
15. Boman H.G., Peptide antibiotics and their role in innate immunity, Annu. Rev. Immunol. 13 (1995)61-92.
16. Bomam H.G., Gene-encoded peptide antibiotics and the concept of innate immunity: an updated review, Scand. J. Immunol. 48 ( 1998) 15-25.
17. Boman H.G., Agerberth B., Boman A., Mechanism of action on Escherichia coli of cecropin P1 and PR-39, two antibacterial peptides from pig intestine. Infect. Immun. 61 (1993) 2978-2984.
18. Broekaerl W.F., Terras F.R., Cammue B.P., Osborn R.W., Plant defensins: novel antimicrobial peptides as components of the host defense system. Plant Physiol. 108 ( 1995) 1353-1358.
19. Cabiaux V., Agerberth B., Johansson J., Homble F., Goormaghtigh E., Ruysschaert J., Secondary structure and membrane interaction of PR-39, a pro-arg-rich antibacterial peptide, Eur. J. Biochem. 224(1994) 1019-1027.
20. Carmona M.J., Molina A., Fernandez J.A., Lopez-Fando J.J., Garcia-Olmedo F., Expression of the α-thionin gene from barley in tobacco confers enhanced resislance to bacterial pathogens. Plant J. 3 ( 1993) 457-462.
21. Cas, J. Biol. Chem. 273 (1998) 28978-28985.
22. Chertov O., Michiel D.F., Xu L., Wang J. M., Tani K., Murphy W.J., Longo D.L., Taub D.D., Oppenheim J.J., Identification of defensin-1, defensin-2, and CAP37/azurocidin as T-cell chemoattraclant proteins released from interleukin-8-stimulated neulrophils. J. Biol. Chem. 271 (1996)2935-2940.
23. Cho Y., Turner J.S., Dinh N.N., Lehrer R.I., Activity of protegrins against yeast-phase Candida albicuns. Infect. Immun. 66 (1998) 2486-2493.
24. Diamond G., Bevins C.L., β-Defensins: endogenous antibiotics of the innate host defense response. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 88 (1998) 221-225.
25. Elshach P., Weiss J., Oxygen-independent antimicrobial systems of phagocytes, in: Gallin J.I., Goldslein I.M., Snyderman R. (Ed.), Inflammation: basic principles and clinical correlates. Raven. New York. 1992. pp. 603-636.
26. Elshach P., Weiss J., Levy O., Integration of antimicrobial host defenses: role of the bactericidal/ permeability-increasing protein. Trends Microbiol. 2 (1994) 324-328.
27. Epple P., Apel K., Bohlmann H., Overexpression of an endogenous thionin enhances resistance of Arabidopsis against Fusarium oxysporum. Plant Cell 9 ( 1997) 509-520.
28. Fernandez de Caleya R., Gonzales-Pasqual B., García-Ohnedo F., Carbonero P., Susceptibility of phytopathogenic bacteria to wheat purothionins in vitro. Appl. Microbiol. 23 ( 1972) 998-1000.
29. Frohm M., Gunne H., Bergman A.C., Agerberth B., Bergman T., Boman A., Liden S., Jörnvall H., Boman H.G., Biochemical and antibacterial analysis of human wound and blister fluid, Eur. J. Biochem. 237 ( 1996) 86-92.
30. Frohm M., Agerberth B., Ahangari G., Stahle-Backdahl M., Liden S., Wigzell H., Gudmundsson G.H., The expression of the gene coding for the antibacterial peptide LL-37 is induced in human keratinocytes during inflammatory disorders, J. Biol. Chem. 272 (1997) 15258-15263.
31. Gallo R.L., Hutlner K.M., Antimicrobial peptides: an emerging concept in cutaneous biology. J. Invest. Dermatol. 111( 1998) 739-743.
32. Gallo R.L., Ono M., Povsic T., Page C., Eriksson E., Klagsbrun M., Bernfield M., Syndecans, cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans, are induced by a proline-rich antimicrobial peptide from wounds. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 91 (1994) 11035-11039.
33. Gallo R.L., Kim K.J., Bernfield M., Kozak CA., Zanctti M., Merluzzi L., Gennaro R., Identification of CRAMP, a cathelin-related antimicrobial peptide expressed in the embryonic and adult mouse, J. Biol. Chcm. 272 ( 1997) 13088-13093.
34. Ganz T., Defensins and host defense. Science 286(1999)420-421.
35. Ganz T., Lehrer R.I., Defensins. Pharmacol. Ther. 66(1995) 191-205.
36. Ganz T., Lehrer R.I., Anlimicrobial peptides of leukocytes, Curr. Opin. Hematol. 4 (1997) 53-58.
37. Ganz T., Lehrer R.I., Antimicrobial peptides of vertebrates, Curr. Opin. Immunol. 10 (1998) 41-44.
38. Ganz T., Lehrer R.I., Antibiotic peptides from higher eukaryotes: biology and applications. Mol. Med. Today, 5 ( 1999) 292-297.
39. Ganz T., Weiss J., Antimicrobial peptides of phagocytes and epithclia, Semin. Hematol. 34 (1997)343-354.
40. García-Olmedo F., Molina A., Alamillo J.M., Rodríguez-Palenzuéla P., Plant defense peptides, Biopolymers 47 (1998)479-491.
41. Gazit E., Miller I.R., Biggin P.C., Sansom M.S., Shai Y., Structure and orientation of the mammalian antibacterial peptide cecropin P1 within phospholipid membranes, J. Mol. Biol. 258 (1996) 860-870.
42. Gleich G.J., Adolphson C.R., Leiferman K.M., The biology of the cosinophilic leukocyte. Annu. Rev. Med. 44(1993)85-101.
43. Glynn M.K., Bopp C., Dewitt W., Dabney P., Mokhtar M., Angulo F.J., Emergence of multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica serotypc tvphimiirium DT104 infections in the United States, N. Engl. J. Med. 338 (1998) 1333-1338.
44. Goldman M.J., Anderson G.M., Stolzenberg E.D., Kari U.P., Zasloff M., Wilson J.M., Human beta-defensin-1 is a salt-sensitive antibiotic in lung that is inactivated in cystic fibrosis. Cell 88(1997)553-560.
45. Gough M., Hancock R.E., Kelly N.M., Antiendotoxin activity of cationic peptide antimicrobial agents. Infect. Immun. 64 (1996) 4922-4927.
46. Gudmundsson G.H., Magnusson K.P., Chowdhary B.P., Johansson M., Andersson L., Boman H.G., Structure of the gene for porcine peptide antibiotic PR-39, a cathelin gene family member: comparative mapping of the locus for the human peptide antibiotic FALL-39, Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 92 (1995) 7085-7089.
47. Hancock R.E., Peptide antibiotics. Lancet 349 (1997)418-422.
48. Hancock R.E., Host defence (cationic) peptides: what is their future clinical potential? Drugs 57 (1999)469-473.
49. Hancock R.E., Lehrer R., Cationic peptides: a new source of antibiotics, Trends Biotechnol. 16 (1998)82-88.
50. Harwig S.S., Kokryakov V.N., Swiderek K.M., Aleshina G.M., Zhao C., Lehrer R.I., Prophenin-1, an exceptionally proline-rich antimicrobial peptide from porcine leukocytes, FEBS Lett. 362 (1995) 65-69.
51. Harwig S.S., Swiderek K.M., Lee T.D., Lehrer R.I., Determination of disulphide bridges in PG-2. an antimicrobial peptide from porcine leukocytes., J. Peptide Sci. 1 (1995)207-215.
52. Harwig S.S., Waring A., Yang H.J., Cho Y., Tan L., Lehrer R.I., Intramolecular disulfide bonds enhance the antimicrobial and lytic activities of protegrins at physiological sodium chloride concentrations, Eur. J. Biochcm. 240 (1996) 352-357.
53. Hawkey P.M., Action against antibiotic resistance: no time to lose. Lancet 351 ( 1998) 1298-1299.
54. Higazi A.A., Lavi E., Bdeir K., Ulrich A.M., Jamieson D.G., Rader D.J., Usher D.C., Kane W., Ganz T., Cines D.B., Defensin stimulates the binding of lipoprotein (a) to human vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells. Blood 89(1997)4290-4298.
55. Hoffmann J.A., Hetru C., Insect defensins: inducible antibacterial peptides, Immunol Today 13(1992)411-415.
56. Hoffmann J.A., Reichhart J.M., Hetru C. Innate immunity in higher insects. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 8(1996)8-13.
57. Hoffmann J.A., Kafatos F:.C., Janeway C.A., Ezekowitz R.A., Phylogenetic perspectives in innate immunity. Science 284 (1999) 1313-1318.
58. Huang H., Ross C.R., Blecha F., Chcmoatlractant properties of PR-39, a neutrophil antibacterial peptide, J. Leukoc. Biol. 61 (1997) 624-629.
59. Hugosson M., Andreu D., Boman H.G., Glaser E., Antibacterial peptides and mitochondrial presequences affect mitochondrial coupling, respiration and protein import, Eur. J. Biochem. 223(1994) 1027-1033.
60. Kelley K.J., Using host defenses to fight infectious diseases. Nature Biolechnol. 14 ( 1996) 587-590.
61. Kokryakov V.N., Harwig S.S., Panyutich E.A., Shevchenko A.A., Aleshina G.M., Shamova O.V., Korneva H.A., Lehrer R.I., Protegrins: leukocyte antimicrobial peptides that combine features of corticostatic defensins and tachyplesins, FEBS Lett. 327 ( 1993) 231-236.
62. Korthuis R.J., Gute D.C., Blecha F., Ross C.R., PR-39, a proline/arginine-rich antimicrobial peptide, prevents postischemic microvascular dysfunction. Am. J. Physiol. 277 (1999) H1007-H1013.
63. Lawyer C., Pai S., Watabe M., Borgia P., Mashimo T., Eagleton L., Watabe K., Antimicrobial activity of a 13 amino acid tryptophanrich peptide derived from a putative porcine precursor protein of a novel family of antibacterial peptides, FEBS Lett. 390 (1996) 95-98.
64. Lee J., Boman A., Sun C., Andersson M., Jörnvail H., Mutt V., Boman H.G., Antibacterial peptides from pig intestine: isolation of a mammalian cecropin. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 86 (1989)9159-9162.
65. Lehrer R.I., Gauz T., Endogenous vertebrate antibiotics. Defensins, protegrins, and other cysteine-rich antimicrobial peptides. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 797 (1996) 228-239.
66. Lehrer R.I. Ganz T., Antimicrobial peptides in mammalian and insect host defense, Curr. Opin. Immunol., 11 (1999)23-27.
67. Lehrer R.I., Lichtenstein A.K., Ganz T., Defensins: Antimicrobial and cytotoxic peptides of mammalian cells, Annu. Rev. Immunol. 11(1993)105-128.
68. Leippe M, Ancient weapons: NK-lysin, is a mammalian homolog to pore-forming peptides of a protozoan parasite, Cell 83(1995) 17-18.
69. Lemaitre B., Nicolas E., Michaut L., Reichhart J.M., Hoffmann J.A., The dorsoventral regulatory gene cassette spatzle/TolI/cactus controls the potent antifungal response in Drosophila adults. Cell 86 ( 1996) 973-983.
70. Levy, O., Antibiotic protein of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, Eur. J. Haematol. 56 (1996) 263-277.
71. Levy O., Ooi C.E., Weiss J., Lehrer R.L., Elsbach P., Individual and synergistic effects of rabbit granulocyte proteins on Escherichia coli. J. Clin. Invest. 94 (1994) 672-682.
72. Levy O., Ooi C.E., Elsbach P., Doerfler M.E., Lehrer R.I., Weiss J., Antibacterial proteins of granulocytes differ in interaction with endotoxin: comparison of bactericidal/permeabilityincreasing protein, pl5s, and defensins, J. Immunol. 154(1995)5403-5410.
73. Lichtenstein A.K., Ganz T., Selsted M.E., Lehrer R.I., Synergistic cytolysis mediated by hydrogen peroxide combined with peptide defensins. Cell Immunol. 114(1988) 104-116.
74. Liepinsh E., Andersson M., Ruysschaert J.M., Otting G., Saposin fold revealed by the NMR structure of NK-lysin, Nature Struct. Biol. 4 (1997) 793-795.
75. MacGowan A.P., Bowker K.E., Bennett P.M., Lovering A.M., Surveillance of antimicrobial resistance. Lancet 352 (1998) 1783.
76. Mangoni O.V., Abdalla M.E., Aumelas A., Charnet P., Roumestand C., Chiche L., Despaux E., Grassy G., Calas B., Chavanieu A., Change in membrane permeability induced by protegrin 1: implication of disulphide bridges for pore formation. FEBS Lett. 383 (1996) 93-98.
77. Matsui H., Grubb B.R., Tarran R., Randell S.H., Gatzy J.T., Davis C.W., Boucher R.C., Evidence for periciliary liquid layer depletion, not abnormal ion composition, in the pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis airways disease. Cell 95 ( 1998) 1005-1015.
78. McCray P.B. Jr., Zabner J., Jia H.P., Welsh M.J., Thorne P.S., Efficient killing of inhaled bacteria in ΔF508 mice: role of airway surface liquid composition. Am. J. Physiol. 277 ( 1999) L183-L190.
79. Miyakawa Y., Ratnakar P., Rao A.G., Costello M.L., Mathieu-costello O., Lehrer R.I., Catan-zaro A., In vitro activity of the antimicrobial peptides human and rabbit defensins and porcine leukocyte protegrin against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infect. Immun. 64 ( 1996) 926-932.
80. Miyasaki K.T., Lehrer R.I., β-sheet antibiotic peptides as potential dental therapeutics. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 9 (1998) 269-280.
81. Mourgues F., Brisset M.N., Chevreau E., Strategies to improve plant resistance to bacterial diseases through genetic engineering. Trends Biotechnol. 16(1998)203-210.
82. Nagaoka I., Someya A., Iwabuchi K., Yamashita T., Characterization of cDNA clones encoding guinea pig neutrophil cationic peptides. FEES Lett. 280 (1991 ) 287-291.
83. Ohtake T., Fujimoto Y., Ikuta K., Saito H., Ohhira M., Ono M., Kohgo Y., Proline-rich antimicrobial peptide, PR-39 gene transduction altered invasive activity and actin structure in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells, Br. J. Cancer 81 (1999)393-403.
84. Oren Z., Shai Y., Mode of action of linear amphipathic α-helical antimicrobial peptides, Biopolymers 47 ( 1998 ) 451 -463.
85. Ouellette A.J., Selsted M.E., Paneth cell defensins: endogenous peptide components of intestinal host defense, FASEB J. 10 (1996) 1280-1289.
86. Panyutich A.V., Szold O., Poon P.H., Tseng Y., Ganz T., Identification of defensin binding to C1 complement. FEBS Lett. 356 ( 1994) 169-173.
87. Panyutich A.V., Hiemstra P.S., van Wetering S., Ganz T., Human neutrophil defensin and serpins form complexes and inactivate each other. Am. J. Resp. Cell Mol. Biol. 12 ( 1995) 351 -357.
88. Panyutich A., Shi J., Boutz P.L., Zhao C., Ganz T., Porcine polymorphonuclear leukocytes generate extracellular microbicidal activity by elastase-mcdiated activation of secreted proprotegrins. Infect. Immun. 65 (1997) 978-985.
89. Pena S.V., Krensky A.M., Granulysin, a new human cytolytic granule-associated protein with possible involvement in cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Semin. Immunol. 9(1997) 117-125.
90. Pungercar J., Strukelj B., Kopitar G., Renko M., Lenarcic B., Gubensek F., Turk V., Molecular cloning of a putative homolog of proline/arginine-rich antimicrobial peptides from porcine bone marrow. FEBS Lett. 336 ( 1993) 284-288.
91. Qu X., Harwig S.S., Oren A.M., Shafer W.M., Lehrer R.I., Susceptibility of Neisseria gonorrhoeae to protegrins. Infect. Immun. 64 (1996) 1240-1245.
92. Qu. X., Harwig S.S., Shafer W.M., Lehrer R.I., Protegrin structure and activity against Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Infect. Immun. 65 (1997) 636-639.
93. Reed W.A., Elzer P.M., Enright F.M., Jaynes J.M., Morrey J.D., White K.L., Interleukin 2 promoter/enhancer controlled expression of a synthetic cecropin-class lytic peptide in transgenic mice and subsequent resistance to Brucella abortus, Transgenic Res. 6 (1997) 337-347.
94. Ritonja A., Kopitar M., Jerala R., Turk V., Primary structure of a new cysteine proteinase inhibitor from pig leukocytes, FEBS Lett. 255 (1989)211-214.
95. Ruysschaert J.M., Goormaghtigh E., Homble F., Andersson M., Liepinsh E., Otting G., Lipid membrane binding of NK-lysin, FEBS Lett. 425 (1998)341-344.
96. Ryan L.K., Rhodes J., Bhat M., Diamond G., Expression of β-defensin genes in bovine alveolar macrophages. Infect. Immun. 66 (1998) 878-881.
97. Sahl H.G., Bierbaum G., Lantibiotics: biosynthesis and biological activities of uniquely modified peptides from gram-positive bacteria, Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 52 (1998) 41-79.
98. Schonwetter B.S., Stolzenberg E.D., Zasloff M.A, Epithelial antibiotics induced at sites of inflammation, Science 267 (1995) 1645-1648.
99. Scocchi M., Bontempo D., Boscolo S., Tomasinsig L., Giulotto E., Zanetti M., Novel cathelicidins in horse leukocytes, FEES Lett. 457(1999)459-464.
100. Selsted M.E., Tang Y.Q., Morris W.L., McGuire P.A., Novotny M.J., Smith W., Menschen A.H., Cullor J.S., Purification, primary structures, and antibacterial activities of β-defensins, a new family of antimicrobial peptides from bovine neutrophils, J. Biol. Chem. 268 (1993) 6641 - 6648.
101. Shi J., Ganz T., The role of protegrins and other elastase-activated polypeptides in the bactericidal properties of porcine inflammatory fluids. Infect. Immun. 66 (1998) 3611-3617.
102. Shi J., Ross C.R.,. Chengappa M.M, Blecha F., Identification of a proline-arginine-rich antibacterial peptide from neutrophils that is analogous to PR-39, an antibacterial peptide from the small intestine., J. Leukoc. Biol. 56 (1994) 807-811.
103. Shi J., Ross C.R., Chengappa M.M., Sylte M.J., McVey D.S., Blecha F., Antimicrobial activity of a synthetic peptide (PR-26) derived from PR-39, a proline-arginine-rich neutrophil antimicrobial peptide, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40(1996) 115-121.
104. phox, Proc. Nail Acacl. Sci. USA 93 (1996) 6014-6018.
105. Shi J., Zhang G., Wu H., Ross C.R., Blecha F., Ganz T., Porcine epithelial β-delensin-1 is expressed in the dorsal tongue at antimicrobial concentrations, Infect. Immun. 67 (1999) 3121-3127.
106. Sipos D., Andersson M., Ehrenberg A., The structure of the mammalian antibacterial peptide cecropin P1 in solution, determined by proton-NMR. Eur. J. Biochem. 209 (1992) 163-169.
107. Steinberg D.A., Hurst M.A., Fujii C.A., Kung A.M., Ho J.F., Cheng F.C., Loury D.J., Fiddes J.C., Protegrin-1: a broad-spectrum, rapidly microbicidal peptide with in vivo activity. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41 ( 1997) 1738-1742.
108. Steiner H., Hultmark D., Engstrom A., Bennich H., Boman H.G., Sequence and specificity of two antibacterial proteins involved in insect immunity. Nature 292 ( 1981 ) 246-248.
109. Stenger S., Hanson D.A., Teitelbaum R., Dewan P., Niazi K.R., Froelich C.J., Ganz T., Thoma-Uszynski S., Melian A., Bogdan C., Porcelli S.A., Bloom B.R., Krensky A.M., Modlin R.L., An antimicrobial activity of cytotoxic T cells mediated by granulysin. Science 282 (1998) 121-125.
110. Stenger S., Rosat J.P., Bloom B.R., Krensky A.M., Modlin R.L., Granulysin: a lethal weapon of cytolytic T cells. Immunol. Today 20 (1999) 390-394.
111. Stolzenberg E.D., Anderson G.M., Ackermann M.R., Whitlock R.H., Zasloff M., Epithelial antibiotic induced in states of disease, Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 94 (1997) 8686-8690.
112. Storici P., Zanetti M., A cDNA derived from pig bone marrow cells predicts a sequence identical to the intestinal antibacterial peptide PR-39, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 196 ( 1993) 1058-1065.
113. Storici P., Scocchi M., Tossi A., Gennaro R., Zanetti M., Chemical synthesis and biological activity of a novel antibacterial peptide deduced from a pig myeloid cDNA. FEBS Lett. 337 (1994)303-307.
114. Strukelj B., Pungercar J., Kopitar G., Renko M., Lenarcic B., Berbic S., Turk V., Molecular cloning and identification of a novel porcine cathelin-like antibacterial peptide precursor, Biol. Chem. Hoppe-Seyler 376 (1995) 507-510.
115. Tamamura H., Murakami T., Horiuchi S., Sugihara K., Otaka A., Takada W., Ibuka T., Waki M., Yamamoto N., Fujii N., Synthesis of protegrin-related peptides and their antibacterial and anti-human immunodeficiency virus activity, Chem. Pharm. Bull. (Tokyo) 43 (1995) 853-858.
116. Tang Y.-Q., Yuan J., Ösapay G., Ösapay K., Tran D., Miller C.J., Ouellelle A.J., Selsted M.E., A cyclic antimicrobial peptide produced in primate leukocytes by the ligation of two truncated-defensins. Science 286 (1999) 498-502.
117. Tarver A.P., Clark D.P., Diamond G., Russell J.P., Erdjument-Bromage H., Tempst P., Cohen K.S., Jones D.E., Sweeney R.W., Wines M., Hwang S., Bevins C.L., Enteric beta-defensin: molecular cloning and characterization of u gene with inducihle intestinal epithelial cell expression associated with Cryptosporidium parvum infection. Infect. Immun. 66 ( 1998) 1045-1056.
118. Territo M.C., Ganz T., Selsted M.E., Lehrer R., Monocyte-chemotactic activity of detensins from human neutrophils, J. Clin. Invest. 84 (1989)2017-2020.
119. Tominaga T., Fukata J., Naito Y., Nakai Y., Funakoshi S., Fujii N., Imura H., Effects of cor-ticostatin-1 on rat adrenal cells in vitro, J. Endocrinol. 125 (1990) 287-292.
120. Tossi A., Scocchi M., Zanetti M., Storici P., Gennaro R., PMAP-37. a novel antihacterial peptide from pig myeloid cells cDNA cloning, chemical synthesis and activity. Eur. J. Biochem. 228 ( 1995) 941-946.
121. van den Berg R.H., Faber-Krol M.C., van Wetering S., Hiemstra P.S., Daha M.R., Inhibition of activation of the classical pathway of complement by human neutrophil delensins. Blood 92 (1998) 3898-3903.
122. Vunnam S., Juvvadi P., Merrifield R.B., Synthesis and antibacterial action of cecropin and prolinc-arginine-rich peptides from pig intestine. J. Peptide Res. 49 ( 1997) 59-66.
123. Wegener H.C., Aarestrup P.M., Jensen L.B., Hammerum A.M., Bager F., Use of antimicrobial growth promoters in food animals and Enterococcus faecium resistance to therapeutic antimicrobial drugs in Europe. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 5(1999)329-335.
124. Weinberg A., Krisanaprakornkit S., Dale B.A., Epithelial antimicrobial peptides: review and significance for oral applications, Crit. Rev. Oral Biol. Med. 9 ( 1998) 399-414.
125. Wu H., Zhang G., Ross C.R., Blecha F., Cathelicidin gene expression in porcine tissues: roles in ontogeny and tissue specificity. Infect. Immun. 67(1999)439-442.
126. Yang D., Chertov O., Bykovskaia S.N., Chen Q., Buffo M.J., Shogan J., Anderson M., Schroder J.M., Wang J.M., Howard O.M., Oppenheim J.J., β-defensins: linking innate and adaptive immunity through dendritic and T cell CCR6. Science 286 ( 1999) 525-528.
127. Yarus S., Rosen J.M., Cole A.M., Diamond G., Production of active bovine tracheal antimicrobial peptide in milk of transgenic mice. Proc. Nail Acad. Sci. USA 93 (1996) 14118-14121.
128. Yasin B., Lehrer RI., Harwig S.S., Wagar E.A., Protegrins: structural requirements for inactivating elementary bodies of Chlamydia trachomatis. Infect. Immun. 64 (1996) 4863-4866.
129. 2+ concentration. FEES Lett. 439 (1998) 267-270.
130. Zanetti M., Storici P., Tossi A., Scoechi M., Gennaro R., Molecular cloning and chemical synthesis of a novel antibacterial peptide derived from pig myeloid cells, J. Biol. Chem. 269 (1994)7855-7858.
131. Zanetti M., Gennaro R., Romeo D., Cathelicidins: a novel protein family with a common proregion and a variable C-terminal antimicrobial domain. FEBS Lett. 374 (1995) 1-5.
132. Zanetti M., Gennaro R., Romeo D., The cathelicidin family of antimicrobial peptide precursors: a component of the oxygen-independent defense mechanisms of neutrophils, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 832(1997) 147-162.
133. Zhang G., Ross C.R., Dritz S.S., Nietfeld J.C., Blecha F., Salmonella infection increases porcine antibacterial peptide concentrations in serum. Clin. Diag. Lab. Immunol. 4 (1997) 774-777.
134. Zhang G., Wu H., Shi J., Ganz T., Ross. C.R., Blecha F., Molecular cloning and tissue expression of pBD-1. a porcine β-defensin. FEBS Lett. 424(1998)37-40.
135. Zhang G., Hiraiwa H., Yasue H., Wu H., Ross C.R., Troyer D., Blecha F., Cloning and characterization of the gene for a new epithelial β-defensin: genomic structure, chromosomal localization, and evidence for its constitutive expression, J. Biol. Chem. 274 (1999) 24031-24037.
136. Zhao C., Liu L., Lehrer R.I., Identification of a new member of the protegrin family by cDNA cloning. FEBS Lett. 346 (1994) 285-288.
137. Zhao C., Ganz T., Lehrer R.I., The structure of porcine proteorin genes. FEBS Lett. 368 ( 1995) 197-202.
138. Zhao C., Ganz T., Lehrer R.I., Structures of genes for two cathelin-associated antimicrobial peptides: prophenin-2 and PR-39. FEBS Lett. 376(1995) 130-134.