Alcohol abuse, alcoholism, and damage to the immune system - A review

Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research

Volumn 22, Issue 9, 1998, Pages 1927-1942

  Cook, Robert T ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOWA   (United States)

Author keywords

Alcohol; Autoimmunity; Immune Activation; Immune Deficiency

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; CELL ADHESION MOLECULE; CYTOKINE; LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE; PARACETAMOL;

ALCOHOL ABUSE; ALCOHOL LIVER CIRRHOSIS; ALCOHOL LIVER DISEASE; ALCOHOL METABOLISM; ALCOHOLISM; ANTIGEN PRESENTATION; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; B LYMPHOCYTE; CELL INTERACTION; CELL MIGRATION; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; HEPATITIS C; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HYPERIMMUNOGLOBULINEMIA; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; IMMUNITY; IMMUNOGLOBULIN DEPOSITION; IMMUNOREGULATION; IMMUNOTHERAPY; INFLAMMATION; LYMPHOCYTE ACTIVATION; LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; LYMPHOCYTE SUBPOPULATION; LYMPHOID ORGAN; MEMBRANE FLUIDITY; MONOCYTE; NATURAL KILLER CELL; NEUTROPHIL; NONHUMAN; PNEUMONIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEPTICEMIA; T LYMPHOCYTE; TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION; TUBERCULOSIS;

ALCOHOL-RELATED DISORDERS; ALCOHOLISM; ANIMALS; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES; CYTOKINES; HUMANS; IMMUNE TOLERANCE; IMMUNITY, CELLULAR;

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); HEPATITIS C VIRUS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS;

EID: 0032441212     PISSN: 01456008     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00000374-199812000-00007     Document Type: Review

References (179)

1. Rush B: An enquiry into the effects of ardent spirits upon the human body and mind with an account of the means of preventing and of the remedies for curing them (reprinted). Q J Stud Alcohol 4:325-341, 1943
2. Kanagasundaram N, Leevy C: Ethanol, immune reactions and the digestive system. Clin Gastroenterol 10:295-306, 1981
3. Mendenhall CL, Anderson S, Weesner RE, Goldberg SJ, Crolic KA: Protein-calorie malnutrition associated with alcoholic hepatitis. Veterans Administration Cooperative Study Group on Alcoholic Hepatitis. Am J Med 76:211-222, 1984
4. Frank D, Raicht RF: Alcohol-induced liver disease. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 9:66-82, 1985
5. Watson RR, Mohs ME, Eskelson C, Sampliner RE, Hartmann B: Identification of alcohol abuse and alcoholism with biologic parameters. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 10:364-385, 1986
6. Johnson RD, Williams R: Immune responses in alcoholic liver disease. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 10:471-486, 1986
7. Mufti SI, Darban HR, Watson RR: Alcohol, cancer and immunomodulation. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 9:243-261, 1989
8. Palmer DL: Host defense impairment in the alcoholic. Immuno-compromised Host 6:2-15, 1989
9. Ishak KG, Zimmerman HJ, Ray MB: Alcoholic liver disease: Pathologic, pathogenetic and clinical aspects. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 15: 45-66, 1991
10. Paronetto F: Immunologic reactions in alcoholic liver disease. Semin Liver Dis 13:183-195, 1993
11. Baker RC, Jerrells TR: Recent developments in alcoholism: Immunological aspects. Recent Dev Alcohol 11:249-271, 1993 (review)
12. Weinberg J: Recent studies on the effects of fetal alcohol exposure on the endocrine and immune systems. Alcohol Alcohol 2(Suppl.):401-409, 1994 (review) (96 refs)
13. Cook RT: T cell modulations in human alcoholics, in Watson RR (ed): Alcohol, Drugs of Abuse, and Immune Functions. Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press, 1995, pp 57-86 (review)
14. MacGregor RR, Louria DB: Alcohol and infection. Curr Clin Top Infect Dis 17:291-315, 1997 (review)
15. Capps JA, Coleman GH: Influence of alcohol on prognosis of pneumonia in Cook County Hospital. JAMA 80:750-752, 1923
16. Chomet B, Gach BM: Lobar pneumonia and alcoholism: An analysis of thirty-seven cases. Am J Med Sci 253:300-304, 1967
17. Chen CW, Jong GM, Shiau JJ, et al: Adult bacteremic pneumonia: Bacteriology and prognostic factors. J Formosan Med Assoc 91:754-759, 1992
18. Cortese MM, Wolff M, Almeido-Hill J, et al: High incidence rates of invasive pneumococcal disease in the White Mountain Apache population. Arch Intern Med 152:2277-2282, 1992
19. Esposito AL: Community-acquired bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia. Effect of age on manifestations and outcome. Arch Intern Med 144:945-948, 1984
20. Kuikka A, Syrjanen J, Renkonen OV, Valtonen VV: Pneumococcal bacteraemia during a recent decade. J Infect 24:157-168, 1992
21. Kuo CH, Changchien CS, Yang CY, Sheen IS, Liaw YF: Bacteremia in patients with cirrhosis of the liver. Liver 11:334-339, 1991
22. Centers for Disease Control: Reported Tuberculosis in the United States. Atlanta, CDC, 1996. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/tb/ surv/surv96.htm
23. Friedman LN, Sullivan GM, Bevilaqua RP, Loscos R: Tuberculosis screening in alcoholics and drug addicts. Am Rev Respir Dis 136:1188-1192, 1987
24. Friedman LN, Williams MT, Singh TP, Frieden TR: Tuberculosis, AIDS, and death among substance abusers on welfare in New York City (see comments). N Engl J Med 334:828-833, 1996
25. White MC, Portillo CJ: Tuberculosis mortality associated with AIDS and drug or alcohol abuse: Analysis of multiple cause-of-death data. Public Health 110:185-189, 1996
26. Bagasra O, Kajdacsy-Balla A, Lischner HW: Effects of alcohol ingestion on in vitro susceptibility of peripheral blood mononuclear cells to infection with HIV and of selected T-cell functions. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 13:636-643, 1989
27. Bagasra O, Kajdacsy-Balla A, Lischner HW, Pomerantz RJ: Alcohol intake increases human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Infect Dis 167:789-797, 1993
28. Bagasra O, Bachmann SE, Jew L, et al: Increased human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells induced by ethanol: Potential immunopathogenic mechanisms. J Infect Dis 173:550-558, 1996
29. Cook RT, Stapleton JT, Ballas ZK, Klinzman D: Effect of a single ethanol exposure on HIV replication in human lymphocytes. J Invest Med 45:265-271, 1997
30. Crum RM, Galai N, Cohn S, Celentano DD, Vlahov D: Alcohol use and T-lymphocyte subsets among injection drug users with HIV-1 infection: A prospective analysis. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:364-371, 1996
31. French SW: Ethanol and hepatocellular injury. Clin Lab Med 16:289-306, 1996 (review) (110 refs)
32. Grellier LF, Dusheiko GM: The role of hepatitis C virus in alcoholic liver disease. Alcohol Alcohol 32:103-111, 1997 (review) (58 refs)
33. Rosman AS, Waraich A, Galvin K, et al: Alcoholism is associated with hepatitis C but not hepatitis B in an urban population. Am J Gastroenterol 91:498-505, 1996 (review) (67 refs)
34. Mendenhall C, Roselle GA, Gartside P, Moritz T: Relationship of protein calorie malnutrition to alcoholic liver disease: A reexamination of data from two Veterans Administration Cooperative Studies. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 19:635-641, 1995
35. Lieber CS: Alcohol and the liver: 1994 update. Gastroenterology 106:1085-1105. 1994 (review) (274 refs)
36. DHHS: Effects of alcohol on health and body systems, in Alcohol and Health. Washington, D.C., National Institutes of Health. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 1997
37. Smith SM, Leaner R, Lefebre A, et al: Pathogenesis of IgA nephropathy in ethanol consumption: Animal model and cell culture studies. Alcohol 10:477-480, 1993 (review) (44 refs)
38. Laskin CA, Vidins E, Blendis LM, Soloninka CA: Autoantibodies in alcoholic liver disease (see comments). Am J Med 89:129-133, 1990
39. Wehr H, Rodo M, Lieber CS, Baraona E: Acetaldchyde adducts and autoantibodies against VLDL and LDL in alcoholics. J Lipid Res 34:1237-1244, 1993
40. Cook RT, Waldschmidt TJ, Cook BL, Labrecque DR, McLatchie K: Loss of the CD5+ and CD45RAhi B cell subsets in alcoholics. Clin Exp Immunol 103:304-310, 1996
41. Sheron N: Alcoholic liver damage-Toxicity, autoimmunity and allergy (editorial; comment). Clin Exp Allergy 24:503-507, 1994 (review) (86 refs)
42. Laso FJ, Madruga JI, San Miguel JF, et al: Long lasting immunological effects of ethanol after withdrawal. Cytometry 26:275-280, 1996
43. Laso FJ, Madruga JI, Lopez A, et al: Abnormalities of peripheral blood T lymphocytes and natural killer cells in alcoholic hepatitis persist after a 3-month withdrawal period. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:672-676. 1997
44. Sacanella E, Estruch R, Gaya A, et al: Activated lymphocytes (CD25+CD69+ cells) and decreased CD19+ cells in well-nourished chronic alcoholics without ethanol-related diseases. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:897-901, 1998
45. Charpentier B, Franco D, Paci L, et al: Deficient natural killer cell activity in alcoholic cirrhosis. Clin Exp Immunol 58:107-115, 1984
46. Kronfol Z, Nair M, Hill E, et al: Immune function in alcoholism: A controlled study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 17:279-283, 1993
47. Cook RT, Li F, Vandersteen D, et al: Ethanol and natural killer cells. I. Activity and immunophenotype in alcoholic humans. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:974-980, 1997
48. Li F, Cook RT, Alber C, et al: Ethanol and natural killer cells. II. Stimulation of human NK activity by ethanol in vitro. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:981-987, 1997
49. Cook RT, Keiner JA, Yen A: Ethanol causes accelerated G1 arrest in differentiating HL-60 cells. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 14:695-703, 1990
50. Zuiable A, Wiener E, Wickramasinghe SN: In vitro effects of ethanol on the phagocytic and microbial killing activities of normal human monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages. Clin Lab Haematol 14: 137-147, 1992
51. Silvain C, Patry C, Launay P, Lehuen A, Monteiro RC: Altered expression of monocyte IgA Fc receptors is associated with defective endocytosis in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis. Potential role for IFN-gamma. J Immunol 155:1606-1618, 1995
52. McClain C, Hill D, Schmidt J, Diehl AM: Cytokines and alcoholic liver disease. Scmin Liver Dis 13:170-182, 1993 (review) (137 refs)
53. Jerrells TR, Weinberg J: Influence of ethanol consumption on immune competence of adult animals exposed to ethanol in utero. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:391-400, 1998
54. Jerrells TR, Slukvin I, Sibley D, Fuseler J: Increased susceptibility of experimental animals to infectious organisms as a consequence of ethanol consumption. Alcohol Alcohol 2(Suppl.):425-430, 1994 (review) (36 refs)
55. Jerrells TR, Sibley D: Effects of ethanol on cellular immunity to facultative intracellular bacteria. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 19:11-16, 1995
56. Nelson S, Summer W, Bagby G, et al: Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor enhances pulmonary host defenses in normal and ethanol-treated rats. J Infect Dis 164:901-906, 1991
57. Lister PD, Gentry MJ, Preheim LC: Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor protects control rats but not ethanol-fed rats from fatal pneumococcal pneumonia. J Infect Dis 168:922-926, 1993
58. Bermudez LE, Petrofsky M, Kolonoski P, Young LS: An animal model of Mycobacterium avium complex disseminated infection after colonization of the intestinal tract. J Infect Dis 165:75-79, 1992
59. Bermudez LE: Effect of ethanol on the interaction between the macrophage and Mycobacterium avium. Alcohol 11:69-73, 1994 (review)
60. Mendenhall CL, Theus SA, Roselle GA, Grossman CJ, Rouster SD: Biphasic in vivo immune function after low-versus high-dose alcohol consumption. Alcohol 14:255-260, 1997
61. Nelson S, Mason C, Bagby G, Summer W: Alcohol, tumor necrosis factor, and tuberculosis. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 19:17-24. 1995 (review) (94 refs)
62. Ewald SJ: T lymphocyte populations in fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 13:485-489, 1989
63. Ewald SJ, Shao H: Ethanol increases apoptotic cell death of thymocytes in vitro. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 17:359-365, 1993
64. Pruett SB, Han YC, Wu WJ: Abrief review of immunomodulation caused by acute administration of ethanol: Involvement of neuroendocrine pathways. Alcohol Alcohol 2(Suppl):431-437, 1994 (review) (44 refs)
65. Livant EJ, Welles EG, Ewald SJ: Chronic ethanol exposure alters leukocyte subsets in repopulating spleens, but does not alter negative selection in thymuses of sublethally irradiated mice. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:1520-1529, 1997
66. Gallucci RM, Pfister LJ, Meadows GG: Effects of ethanol consumption on enriched natural killer cells from C57BL/6 mice. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 18:625-631, 1994
67. Wu WJ, Wolcott RM, Pruett SB: Ethanol decreases the number and activity of splenic natural killer cells in a mouse model for binge drinking. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 271:722-729, 1994
68. Yirmiya R, Ben-Eliyahu S, Gale RP, et al: Ethanol increases tumor progression in rats: Possible involvement of natural killer cells. Brain Behav Immun 6:74-86, 1992
69. Meadows GG, Elstad CA, Blank SE, Gallucci RM, Pfister LJ: Alcohol consumption suppresses metastasis of B16-BL6 melanoma in mice. Clin Exp Metas 11:191-199, 1993
70. Blank SE, Meadows GG: Ethanol modulates metastatic potential of B16BL6 melanoma and host responses. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:624-628, 1996
71. Domiati-Saad R, Jerrells TR: The influence of age on blood alcohol levels and ethanol-associated immunosuppression in a murine model of ethanol consumption. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 17:382-388, 1993
72. Pickrell KL: The effects of alcohol intoxications and ether anesthesia on resistance to pneumococcal infections. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp 64:238-260, 1938
73. Brayton RG, Stokes PE, Schwartz MS, Louria DB: Effect of alcohol and various diseases on leukocyte mobilization, phagocytosis and intracellular bacterial killing. N Engl J Med 282:123-128, 1970
74. Gluckman SJ, MacGregor RR: Effect of acute alcohol intoxication on granulocyte mobilization and kinetics. Blood 52:551-559, 1978
75. Avaria M, Basu PK, Kapur B: Acute ethanol intoxication can inhibit leucocyte mobilization in the corneal wounds. Exp Eye Res 33: 631-639, 1981
76. Astry CL, Warr GA, Jakab GJ: Impairment of polymorphonuclear leukocyte immigration as a mechanism of alcohol-induced suppression of pulmonary antibacterial defenses. Am Rev Respir Dis 128:113-117, 1983
77. Shellito JE, Olariu R: Alcohol decreases T-lymphocyte migration into lung tissue in response to Pneumocystis carinii and depletes T-lymphocyte numbers in the spleens of mice. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:658-663, 1998
78. Gallatin WM, Weissman IL, Butcher EC: A cell-surface molecule involved in organ-specific homing of lymphocytes. Nature 304:30-34, 1983
79. Lewinsohn DM, Bargatze RF, Butcher EC: Leukocyte-endothelial cell recognition: Evidence of a common molecular mechanism shared by neutrophils, lymphocytes, and other leukocytes. J Immunol 138:4313-4321, 1987
80. MacGregor RR, Safford M, Shalit M: Effect of ethanol on functions required for the delivery of neutrophils to sites of inflammation. J Infect Dis 157:682-689, 1988
81. Zhang P, Nelson S, Summer WR, Spitzer JA: Acute ethanol intoxication suppresses the pulmonary inflammatory response in rats challenged with intrapulmonary endotoxin. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:773-778, 1997
82. Zhang P, Bagby GJ, Xie M, et al: Acute ethanol intoxication inhibits neutrophil beta-2 integrin expression in rats during endotoxemia. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:135-141, 1998
83. Cook RT, Waldschmidt TJ, Ballas ZK, et al: Fine T-cell subsets in alcoholics as determined by the expression of L-selectin, leukocyte common antigen, and beta-integrin. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 18:71-80, 1994
84. Santos-Perez JL, Diez-Ruiz A, Luna-Casado L, et al: T-cell activation, expression of adhesion molecules and response to ethanol in alcoholic cirrhosis. Immunol Lett 50:179-183, 1996
85. Bautista AP: Chronic alcohol intoxication enhances the expression of CD18 adhesion molecules on rat neutrophils and release of a chemotactic factor by Kupffer cells. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 19:285-290, 1995
86. Bautista AP: Chronic alcohol intoxication induces hepatic injury through enhanced macrophage inflammatory protein-2 production and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression in the liver. Hepatology 25: 335-342, 1997
87. Nanji AA, Griniuviene B, Yacoub LK, Fogt F, Tahan SR: Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression in experimental alcoholic liver disease: Relationship to endotoxemia and TNF alpha messenger RNA. Exp Mol Pathol 62:42-51, 1995
88. Ohki E, Kato S, Ohgo H, et al: Effect of chronic ethanol feeding on endotoxin-induced hepatic injury: Role of adhesion molecules on leukocytes and hepatic sinusoid. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:1298-1328, 1998
89. Lister PD, Gentry MJ, Preheim LC: Ethanol impairs neutrophil chemotaxis in vitro but not adherence or recruitment to lungs of rats with experimental pneumococcal pneumonia [published erratum appears in J Infect Dis 1993 Jul;168(1):262], J Infect Dis 167:1131-1137, 1993
90. Jareo PW, Preheim LC, Lister PD, Gentry MJ: The effect of ethanol ingestion on killing of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis by rat neutrophils. Alcohol Alcohol 30:311-318, 1995
91. Jareo PW, Preheim LC, Gentry MJ: Ethanol ingestion impairs neutrophil bactericidal mechanisms against Streptococcus pneumonias. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:1646-1652, 1996
92. Rubins JB, Charboneau D, Prigge W, Mellencamp MA: Ethanol ingestion reduces antipneumococcal activity of rat pulmonary surfactant. J Infect Dis 174:507-512, 1996
93. Lieber CS: Ethanol metabolism, cirrhosis and alcoholism. Clin Chim Acta 257:59-84, 1997 (review) (165 refs)
94. Crossley IR, Neuberger J, Davis M, Williams R, Eddleston AL: Ethanol metabolism in the generation of new antigenic determinants on liver cells. Gut 27:186-189, 1986
95. Hoerner M, Behrens UJ, Worner T, Lieber CS: Humoral immune response to acetaldehyde adducts in alcoholic patients. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 54:3-12, 1986
96. Israel Y, Hurwitz E, Niemela O, Arnon R: Monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies against acetaldehyde-containing epitopes in acetaldehyde-protein adducts. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 83:7923-7927, 1986
97. Tuma DJ, Newman MR, Donohue TM Jr, Sorrell MF: Covalent binding of acetaldehyde to proteins: Participation of lysine residues. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 11:579-584, 1987
98. Anthony RS, Farquharson M, MacSween RN: Liver membrane antibodies in alcoholic liver disease. II. Antibodies to ethanol-altered hepatocytes. J Clin Pathol 36:1302-1308, 1983
99. Goldstein DB: Ethanol-induced adaptation in biological membranes. Ann NY Acad Sci 492:103-111, 1987
100. Lasner M, Roth LG, Chen CH: Structure-functional effects of a series of alcohols on acetylcholinesterase-associated membrane vesicles: Elucidation of factors contributing to the alcohol action. Arch Biochem Biophys 317:391-396, 1995
101. Shiraishi K, Matsuzaki S, Itakura M, Ishida H: Abnormality in membrane fatty acid compositions of cells measured on erythrocyte in alcoholic liver disease. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:56A-59A, 1996
102. Laskin DL, Gardner CR, Price VF, Jollow DJ: Modulation of macrophage functioning abrogates the acute hepatotoxicity of acetaminophen. Hepatology 21:1045-1050, 1995
103. Goldin RD, Ratnayaka ID, Breach CS, Brown IN, Wickramasinghe SN: Role of macrophages in acetaminophen (paracetamol)-induced hepatotoxicity. J Pathol 179:432-435, 1996
104. Schafer C, Schips I, Landig J, Bode JC, Bode C: Tumor-necrosis-factor and interleukin-6 response of peripheral blood monocytes to low concentrations of lipopolysaccharide in patients with alcoholic liver disease. Zeitschrift für Gastroenterol 33:503-508, 1995
105. Schenker S, Bay MK: Alcohol and endotoxin: Another path to alcoholic liver injury? Alcohol Clin Exp Res 19:1364-1366, 1995 (review)
106. Felver ME, Mezey E, McGuire M, et al: Plasma tumor necrosis factor a predicts decreased long-term survival in severe alcoholic hepatitis. Alcoholism 14:255-259, 1990
107. Bird GLA, Sheron N, Goka AKJ, Alexander GJ, Williams RS: Increased plasma tumor necrosis factor in severe alcoholic hepatitis. Ann Intern Med 112:917-920, 1990
108. Le Moine O, Marchant A, De Groote D, et al: Role of defective monocyte interleukin-10 release in tumor necrosis factor-alpha overproduction in alcoholics cirrhosis. Hepatology 22:1436-1439, 1995
109. Laso F-J, Lapena P, Madruga JI, et al: Alterations in tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, and interleukin-6 production by natural killer cell-enriched peripheral blood mononuclear cells in chronic alco-holism: Relationship with liver disease and ethanol intake. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:1226-1231, 1997
110. Kamimura S, Tsukamoto H: Cytokine gene expression by Kupffer cells in experimental alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology 22:1304-1309, 1995
111. Pennington HL, Hall PM, Wilce PA, Worrall S: Ethanol feeding enhances inflammatory cytokine expression in lipopolysaccharide-induced hepatitis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 12:305-313, 1997
112. Batey R, Cao Q, Madsen G, et al: Decreased tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1-alpha production from intrahepatic mononuclear cells in chronic ethanol consumption and upregulation by endotoxin. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:150-156, 1998
113. Cao Q, Batey R, Pang G, Clancy R: Altered T-lymphocyte responsiveness to polyclonal cell activators is responsible for liver cell necrosis in alcohol-fed rats. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:723-729, 1998
114. Gosset P, Wallaert B, Canva-Delcambre V, Colombel JF, Tonnel AB: Impaired secretion and mRNA expression of monokines by alveolar macrophages from nonsmoking patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis. J Infect Dis 171:743-746, 1995
115. Omidvari K, Casey R, Nelson S, Olariu R, Shellito JE: Alveolar macrophage release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in chronic alcoholics without liver disease. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:567-572, 1998
116. Standiford TJ, Danforth JM: Ethanol feeding inhibits proinflammatory cytokine expression from murine alveolar macrophages ex vivo. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:1212-1217, 1997
117. D'Souza NB, Nelson S, Summer WR, Deaciuc IV: Expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 cell-surface receptors of the alveolar macrophage in alcohol-treated rats. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 18: 1430-1435, 1994
118. Hill DB, Marsano LS, McClain CJ: Increased plasma interleukin-8 concentrations in alcoholic hepatitis. Hepatology 18:576-580, 1993
119. Bird G: Interleukin-8 in alcoholic liver disease. Acta Gastroenterol Belg 57:255-259, 1994 (review) (20 refs)
120. Huang YS, Chan CY, Wu JC, et al: Serum levels of interleukin-8 in alcoholic liver disease: Relationship with disease stage, biochemical parameters and survival. J Hepatol 24:377-384, 1996
121. Maher JJ: Rat hepatocytes and Kupffer cells interact to produce interleukin-8 (CINC) in the setting of ethanol. Am J Physiol 269:G518-G523, 1995
122. Ross AD, Saldivia V, Oporto B, et al: Circulating neutrophils and liver injury in rat models of experimental alcoholic liver disease. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:197-201, 1998
123. Szabo G, Verma BK, Fogarasi M, Catalano DE: Induction of transforming growth factor-beta and prostaglandin E2 production by ethanol in human monocytes. J Leukoc Biol 52:602-610, 1992
124. Verma BK, Fogarasi M, Szabo G: Down-regulation of tumor necrosis factor alpha activity by acute ethanol treatment in human peripheral blood monocytes. J Clin Immunol 13:8-22, 1993
125. Szabo G, Mandrekar P, Girouard L, Catalano D: Regulation of human monocyte functions by acute ethanol treatment: Decreased tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1 beta and elevated interleukin-10, and transforming growth factor-beta production. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20: 900-907, 1996
126. Mandrekar P, Catalano D, Girouard L, Szabo G: Human monocyte IL-10 production is increased by acute ethanol treatment. Cytokine 8:567-577, 1996
127. Szabo G, Girouard L, Mandrekar P, Catalano D: Acute ethanol treatment augments interleukin-12 production in activated human monocytes. Ann NY Acad Sci 795:422-425, 1996
128. Tuma DJ, Todero SL, Barak-Bernhagen M, Sorrell MF: Effects of chronic ethanol administration on the endocytosis of cytokines by rat hepatocytes. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:579-583, 1996
129. Deaciuc IV, Alappat JM, McDonough KH, D'Souza NB: Effect of chronic alcohol consumption by rats on tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 clearance in vivo and by the isolated, perfused liver. Biochem Pharmacol 52:891-899, 1996
130. Szabo G, Verma B, Catalano D: Selective inhibition of antigen-specific T lymphocyte proliferation by acute ethanol exposure: The role of impaired monocyte antigen presentation capacity and mediator production. J Leukoc Biol 54:534-544, 1993
131. Mikszta JA, Waltenbaugh C, Kim BS: Impaired antigen presentation by splenocytes of ethanol-consuming C57BL/6 mice. Alcohol 12: 265-271, 1995
132. Schodde H, Hurst S, Munroe M, Barrett T, Waltenbaugh C: Ethanol ingestion inhibits cell-mediated immune responses of unprimed T-cell receptor transgenic mice. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:890-899, 1996
133. Waltenbaugh C, Peterson JD: Ethanol impairs the induction of delayed hypersensitivity in C57BL/6 mice. Alcohol 14:149-153, 1997
134. Fitch FW, McKisic MD, Lancki DW, Gajewski TF: Differential regulation of murine T lymphocyte subsets. Ann Rev Immunol 11:29-48, 1993 (review)
135. O'Garra A, Murphy K: Role of cytokines in determining T-lymphocyte function. Curr Opin Immunol 6:458-466, 1994 (review)
136. Romagnani S: Biology of human TH1 and TH2 cells. J Clin Immunol 15:121-129, 1995 (review)
137. Medzhitov R, Janeway CA Jr: Innate immunity: Impact on the adaptive immune response. Curr Opin Immunol 9:4-9, 1997
138. Cohen DA: Alcohol abuse as a possible cofactor in the progres-sion of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: Do Th-1 and Th-2 helper T cell subsets play a role?, in Watson RR (ed): Alcohol, Drugs of Abuse, and Immune Functions. Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press, 1995, pp 213-228
139. Na HR, Zhu X, Stewart GL, Seelig LL Jr: Ethanol consumption suppresses cell-mediated inflammatory responses and increases T-helper type 2 cytokine secretion in Trichinella spiralis-infected rats. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:1179-1185, 1997
140. Zisman DA, Stricter RM, Kunkel SL, et al: Ethanol feeding impairs innate immunity and alters the expression of Th1- and Th2-phenotype cytokines in murine Klebsiella pneumonia. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:621-627, 1998
141. Girouard L, Mandrekar P, Catalano D, Szabo G: Regulation of monocyte interleukin-12 production by acute alcohol: A role for inhibition by interleukin-10, Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:211-216, 1998
142. Peterson JD, Herzenberg LA, Vasquez K, Waltenbaugh C: Glutathionc levels in antigen presenting cells modulate TH1 versus TH2 response patterns. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:3071-3076, 1998
143. Oleson DR, DeFelice LJ, Donahoe RM: Ethanol increases K+ conductance in human T-cells. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 17:604-609, 1993
144. Nilsson E, Andersson T, Fallman M, Rosendahl K, Palmblad J: Effects of ethanol on the chemotactic peptide-induced second messenger generation and superoxide production in polymorphonuclcar leukocytes. J Infect Dis 166:854-860, 1992
145. Patel M, Keshavarzian A, Kottapalli V, et al: Human neutrophil functions are inhibited in vitro by clinically relevant ethanol concentrations. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:275-283, 1996
146. Hijioka T, Goto M, Lemasters JJ, Thurman RG: Effect of short-term ethanol treatment on voltage-dependent calcium channels in Kupffer cells. Hepatology 18:400-405, 1993
147. Hock JB, Thomas AP, Rooney TA, Higashi K, Ruhin E: Ethanol and signal transduction in the liver. FASEB J 6:2386-2396, 1992
148. γ1. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 185:1062-1068, 1992
149. 2+ mobilization in rat hepatocytes. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:330A-334A, 1996
150. Zeldin G, Yang SQ, Yin M, et al: Alcohol and cytokine-inducible transcription factors. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:1639-1645, 1996 (review) (36 refs)
151. Fox ES, Cantrell CH, Leingang KA: Inhibition of the Kupffer cell inflammatory response by acute ethanol: NF-kappa B activation and subsequent cytokine production. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 225: 134-140, 1996
152. Mandrekar P, Catalano D, Szabo G: Alcohol-induced regulation of nuclear regulatory factor-kB in human monocytes. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:988-994, 1997
153. Chamulitrat W, Spitzer JJ: Nitric oxide and liver injury in alcohol-fed rats after lipopolysaccharide administration. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:1065-1070, 1996
154. Nanji AA, Greenberg SS, Tahan SR, et al: Nitric oxide production in experimental alcoholic liver disease in the rat: Role in protection from injury. Gastroenterology 109:899-907, 1995
155. Perera CS, St. Clair DK, McClain CJ: Differential regulation of manganese superoxide dismutase activity by alcohol and TNF in human hepatoma cells. Arch Biochem Biophys 323:471-476, 1995
156. Higuchi H, Kurose I, Kato S, Miura S, Ishii H: Ethanol-induced apoptosis and oxidative stress in hepatocytes. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:340A-346A, 1996 (review) (65 refs)
157. Greenberg S, Xie J, Kolls J, et al: Ethanol suppresses Mycobacteria tuberculosis-induced mRNA for nitric oxide synthase in alveolar macrophages, in vivo. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 19:394-401, 1995
158. Bautista AP: Chronic alcohol intoxication attenuates human immunodeficiency virus-1 glycoprotein 120-induced superoxide anion release by isolated Kupffer cells. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:474-480, 1998
159. D'Souza NB, Nelson S, Summer WR, Deaciuc IV: Alcohol modulates alveolar macrophage tumor necrosis factor-alpha, superoxide anion, and nitric oxide secretion in the rat. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:156-163, 1996
160. Greenberg SS, Ouyang J, Zhao X, et al: Interaction of ethanol with inducible nitric oxide synthase messenger RNA and protein: Direct effects on autacoids and endotoxin in vivo. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 282: 1044-1054, 1997
161. Trudell JR, Ardies CM, Green CE, Allen K: Binding of anti-acetaldehyde IgG antibodies to hepatocytes with an acetaldehyde-phosphatidylethanolamine adduct on their surface. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 15:295-299, 1991
162. Clot P, Bellomo G, Tabone M, Arico S, Albano E: Detection of antibodies against proteins modified by hydroxyethyl free radicals in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 108:201-207, 1995
163. Chang W, Waltenbaugh C, Borensztajn J: Fatty acid ethyl ester synthesis by the isolated perfused rat heart. Metab Clin Exp 46:926-929, 1997
164. Clot P, Alhano E, Eliasson E, et al: Cytochrome P4502E1 hydroxyethyl radical adducts as the major antigen in autoantibody formation among alcoholics. Gastroenterology 111:206-216, 1946
165. Clot P, Parola M, Bellomo G, et al: Plasma membrane hydroxyethyl radical adducts cause antibody-dependent cytotoxicity in rat hepatocytes exposed to alcohol (see comments). Gastroenterology 113:265-276, 1997
166. Worrall S, de Jersey J, Wilce PA, et al: Relationship between alcohol intake and immunoglobulin a immunoreactivity with acetaldehyde-modified bovine serum albumin. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20: 836-840, 1996
167. Viitala K, Israel Y, Blake JE, Niemela O: Serum IgA. IgG, and IgM antibodies directed against acetaldehyde-derived epitopes: Relationship to liver disease severity and alcohol consumption. Hepatology 25: 1418-1424, 1997
168. Thiele GM, Wegter KM, Sorrell MF, et al: Specificity of N-ethyl lysine of a monoclonal antibody to acetaldehyde-modified proteins prepared under reducing conditions. Biochem Pharmacol 48:183-189, 1994
169. Klassen LW, Tuma DJ, Sorrell MF, et al: Detection of reduced acetaldehyde protein adducts using a unique monoclonal antibody. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 18:164-171, 1994
170. Tuma DJ, Thiele GM, Xu D, Klassen LW, Sorrell MF: Acetaldehyde and malondialdehyde react together to generate distinct protein adducts in the liver during long-term ethanol administration. Hepatology 23:872-880, 1996
171. Bone RC: Attenuating the effects of endotoxin. J Lab Clin Med 119:323-324, 1992
172. Preheim LC, Snitily MU, Gentry MJ: Effects of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in cirrhotic rats with pneumococcal pneumonia. J Infect Dis 174:225-228, 1996
173. Zhang P, Bagby GJ, Stoltz DA, et al: Modulation of the lung host response by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in rats challenged with intrapulmonary endotoxin. Shock 7:193-199, 1997
174. Grimsley EW: Granulocyte colony stimulating factor in the treatment of alcohol abuse, leukopenia, and pneumococcal sepsis. South Med J 88:220-221, 1995
175. Nelson S: Role of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in the immune response to acute bacterial infection in the nonneutropenic host: an overview. Clin Infect Dis 18(Suppl. 2):S197-S204, 1994 (review) (61 refs)
176. Peterson JD, Vasquez K, Waltenbaugh C: Interleukin-12 therapy restores cell-mediated immunity in ethanol-consuming mice. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:245-251, 1998
177. Kolls JK, Lei D, Stoltz D, et al: Adenoviral-mediated interferon-γ gene therapy augments pulmonary host defense of ethanol-treated rats. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:157-162, 1998
178. Mendenhall CL, Roselle GA, Gartside P, Grossman CJ: Effects of recombinant human insulin-like growth factor-1 and recombinant human growth hormone on anabolism and immunity in calorie-restricted alcoholic rats. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:1-10, 1997
179. Cook RT, Ballas ZK, Waldschmidt TJ, et al: Modulation of T-cell adhesion markers, and the CD45R and CD57 antigens in human alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 19:555-563, 1995