The rational use of β2-agonists in the management of asthma: Maintenance, rescue, and emergency

Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 19, Issue 6, 1998, Pages 613-624

  Hanania, Nicola A ^a   Moore, Robert H ^b   Dickey, Burton F ^c  

^a BEN TAUB GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b TEXAS CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^c BAYLOR COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Asthma; Bronchodilators; Emergency; Maintenance; Rescue; Therapy; 2 agonists

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; BETA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BITOLTEROL; BITOLTEROL MESILATE; EPHEDRINE; FORMOTEROL; FORMOTEROL FUMARATE; ISOETARINE; ISOPRENALINE; ISOPROTEIN; ORCIPRENALINE; PIRBUTEROL; PIRBUTEROL ACETATE; SALBUTAMOL; SALMETEROL; SALMETEROL XINAFOATE; TERBUTALINE; TERBUTALINE SULFATE;

ARTICLE; ASTHMA; BETA ADRENERGIC STIMULATION; BRONCHODILATATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG INDICATION; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG SPECIFICITY; DRUG STRUCTURE; DRUG TOLERANCE; EMERGENCY TREATMENT; HUMAN; INHALATIONAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; METERED DOSE INHALER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SUBCUTANEOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION;

EID: 0032419447     PISSN: 10693424     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-1009436     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Rossing TH, Fanta CH, Goldstein DH, et al. Emergency therapy of asthma: Comparison of the acute effects of parenteral and inhaled sympathomimetics and infused aminophylline. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980;122:365-371
2. Swedish Society of Chest Medicine. High-dose inhaled versus intravenous salbutamol combined with theophylline in severe acute asthma. Eur Respir J 1990;3:163-170
3. Salmeron S, Brochard L, Mal H, et al. Nebulized versus intravenous albuterol in hypercapnic acute asthma. A multicenter, double-blind, randomized study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;149:1466-1470
4. 2-agonists in asthma therapy. Chest 1998;113:1095-1108.
5. Handley DA, McCullough JR, eds. R-albuterol. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 1996;14:1-147
6. Mitra S, Ugur M, Ugur O, et al. S-albuterol increases intracellular free calcium by muscarinic receptor activation and a phospholipase C-dependent mechanism in airway smooth muscle. Mol Pharmacol. In press
7. Kenakin T. Pharmacologic Analysis of Drug-Receptor Interaction. New York: Raven Press, Ltd.; 1993:1-468
8. 2-agonists and their impartial assessment. Chest 1996;110:1131-1132
9. 2-adrenoceptor. Br J Pharmacol 1998;123:701-711
10. 2-adrenergic receptor desensitization, internalization, and phosphorylation in response to full and partial agonists. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:23871-23879
11. Bohm SK, Grady EF, Bunnett NW. Regulatory mechanisms that modulate signalling by G-protein-coupled receptors. Biochem J 1997;322:1-18
12. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Expert Panel Report II: Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. Washington, DC: Public Health Service; 1997. NIH publication # 97-4051
13. van der Molen T, Postma DS, Turner MO, et al. Effects of the long acting beta agonist formoterol on asthma control in asthmatic patients using inhaled corticosteroids. The Netherlands and Canadian formoterol study investigators. Thorax 1997;52:535-539
14. Woolcock A, Lundback B, Ringdal N, et al. Comparison of addition of salmeterol to inhaled steroids with doubling of the close of inhaled steroids. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:1481-1488
15. Greening AP, Ind PW, Northfield M, et al. Added salmeterol versus higher-dose corticosteroid in asthma patients with symptoms on existing inhaled corticosteroid. Allen & Hanburys Limited UK study group. Lancet 1994;344: 219-224
16. Pauwels RA, Löfdahl C-G, Postma DS, et al. Effect of inhaled formoterol and budesonide on exacerbations of asthma. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1405-1411
17. Cumming RG, Mitchell P, Leeder SR. Use of inhaled corticosteroids and the risk of cataracts. N Engl J Med 1997; 337:8-14
18. Garbe E, LeLorier J, Boivin J-F, Suissa S. Inhaled and nasal glucocorticoids and the risks of ocular hypertension or open-angle glaucoma. JAMA 1997;277:722-727
19. Hanania NA, Chapman KR, Sturtridge WG, et al. Dose-related decrease in bone density among asthmatic patients treated with inhaled corticosteroids. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1995;96:571-579
20. Hanania NA, Chapman KR, Kesten S. Adverse effects of inhaled corticosteroids. Am J Med 1995;98:196-208
21. D'Alonzo GE, Nathan RA, Henochowicz S, et al. Salmeterol xinafoate as maintenance therapy compared with albuterol in patients with asthma. JAMA 1994;271:1412-1416
22. Pearlman DS, Chervinsky P, LaForce C, et al. A comparison of salmeterol with albuterol in the treatment of mild-to-moderate asthma. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1420-1425
23. Boulet LP, Laviolette M, Boucher S, et al. A twelve-week comparison of salmeterol and salbutamol in the treatment of mild-to-moderate asthma: A Canadian multicenter study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997;99:13-21
24. 2 agonist therapy: Oral versus inhaled delivery: J Asthma 1992;29:49-54
25. Nathan RA, Seltzer JM, Kemp JP, et al. Safety of salmeterol in the maintenance treatment of asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immnnol 1995;75:243-248
26. Palmer JBD, Stuart AM, Shepherd GL, et al. Inhaled salmeterol in the treatment of patients with moderate to severe reversible obstructive airways disease - a 3 month comparison of the efficacy and safety of twice daily salmeterol (100 μg) with salmeterol (50 μg). Respir Med 1992;86: 409-417
27. Britton MG, Earnshaw JS, Palmer JB. A twelve month comparison of salmeterol with salbutamol in asthmatic patients. European Study Group. Eur Respir J 1992;5:1062-1067
28. Kesten S, Chapman KR, Broder, I, et al. Sustained improvement in asthma with long term use of formoterol fumarate. Ann Allergy 1992;69:415-420
29. Ullman A, Hedner J, Svedmyr N. Inhaled salmeterol and salbutamol in asthmatic patients. An evaluation of asthma symptoms and the possible development of tachyphylaxis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;142:571-575
30. Juniper EF, Johnston PR, Borkhoff CM, et al. Quality of life in asthma clinical trials: Comparison of salmeterol and salbutamol. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151: 66-70
31. Boner AL, Spezia E, Piovesan P, et al. Inhaled formoterol in the prevention of exercise induced bronchoconstriction in asthmatic children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149:935-939
32. Kemp JP, Dockhorn RJ, Busse WW, et al. Prolonged effect of inhaled salmeterol against exercise-induced bronchospasm. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150:1612-1615
33. Anderson SD, Rodwell LT, Du Toit J, et al. Duration of protection by inhaled salmeterol in exercise-induced asthma. Chest 1991;100:1254-1260
34. 2 agonist. BMJ 1990;301:1365-1368
35. Maesen FPV, Smeets EE, Gubblemans HLL, et al. Formoterol in the treatment of nocturnal asthma. Chest 1990;98:866-870
36. Cheung D, Timmers MC, Zwinderman AH, et al. Long-term effects of a long-acting beta2-adrenoceptor agonist, salmeterol, on airway hyperresponsiveness in patients with mild asthma. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1198-1203
37. Bhagat R, Kalra S, Swystun VA, et al. Rapid onset of tolerance to the bronchoprotective effect of salmeterol. Chest 1995;108:1235-1239
38. Giannini D, Carletti A, Dente FL, et al. Tolerance to the protective effect of salmeterol on allergen challenge. Chest 1996;110:1452-1457
39. Ramage L, Lipworth BJ, Ingram CG, et al. Reduced protection against exercise induced bronchoconstriction after chronic dosing with salmeterol. Respir Med 1994;88:363-368
40. Simons FER, Gerstner TV, Cheang MS. Tolerance to the bronchoprotective effect of salmeterol in adolescents with exercise-induced asthma using concurrent inhaled glucocorticoid treatment. Pediatrics 1997;99:655-659
41. Newnham DM, McDevitt DG, Lipworth BJ. Bronchodilator subsensitivity after chronic dosing with eformoterol in patients with asthma. Am J Med 1994;97:29-37
42. 2-adrenoceptor responses after regular twice daily treatment with eformoterol dry powder in asthmatic patients. Thorax 1995; 50:497-504
43. Grove A, Lipworth BJ. Bronchodilator subsensitivity to salbutamol after twice daily salmeterol in asthmatic patients. Lancet 1995;346:201-206
44. Ng, HW. Bronchodilator subsensitivity to salbutamol after salmeterol. Lancet 1995;346:968. Letter
45. Barnes N. Bronchodilator subsensitivity to salbutamol after salmeterol. Lancet 1995;346:968. Letter
46. Weinbergen M. Bronchodilator subsensitivity to salbutamol after salmeterol. Lancet 1995;346:968. Letter
47. Spitzer WO, Suissa S, Ernst P, et al. The use of β-agonist and the risk of death and near death from asthma. N Engl J Med 1992;326:501-506
48. Sears M, Taylor DR, Print CG, et al. Regular inhaled beta-agonist treatment in bronchial asthma. Lancet 1990;336: 1391-1396
49. Cockcroft DW, McParland CP, Britto SA, et al. Regular inhaled salbutamol and airway responsiveness to allergen. Lancet 1993;342:833-837
50. Cockcroft DW, O'Byrne PM, Swystun VA, Bhagat R. Regular use of inhaled albuterol and the allergen-induced late asthmatic response. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1995;96:44-49
51. Drazen JM, Israel E, Boushey HA, et al. Comparison of regularly scheduled with as-needed use of albuterol in mild asthma. N Engl J Med 1996;335:841-847
52. Mann RD, Kubota K, Pearce G, et al. Salmeterol: A study by prescription-event monitoring in a UK cohort of 15,407 patients. J Clin Epidemiol 1996;49:247-250
53. van Noord JA, Smeets JJ, Raaijmakers JA, et al. Salmeterol versus formoterol in patients with moderately severe asthma: Onset and duration of action. Eur Respir J 1996; 9:1684-1688
54. Tattersfield AE. Clinical pharmacology of long-acting beta-receptor agonists. Life Sci 1993;52:2161-2169
55. Maesen FP, Smeets JJ, Gubblemans HLL, et al. Bronchodilator effect of inhaled formoterol vs salbutamol over 12 hours. Chest 1990;97:590-594
56. 2-adrenergic receptor. J Biol Chem 1996;271:24029-24035
57. 2-adrenoceptor agonist bronchodilator. Life Sci 1993;52:2145-2160
58. 2-adrenoceptor agonists with higher efficacy on guinea-pig trachea and human bronchus in vitro. Br J Pharmacol 1994;113:687-692
59. Linden A, Bergendal A, Ullman A, et al. Salmeterol, formoterol, and salbutamol in the isolated guinea pig trachea: Differences in maximum relaxant effect and potency but not in functional antagonism. Thorax 1993;48: 547-553
60. 2- adrenoreceptor agonist salmeterol in guinea pig trachea. Br J Pharmacol 1991;101: 1057-1061
61. Ellis KE, Mistry R, Boyle JP, Challiss RAJ. Correlation of cyclic AMP accumulation and relaxant actions of salmeterol and salbutamol in bovine tracheal smooth muscle. Br J Pharmacol 1995;116:2510-2516
62. Tan KS, Grove A, McClean A, et al. Systemic corticosteroid rapidly reverses bronchodilator subsensitivity induced by formoterol in asthmatic patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;156:28-35
63. Derom EY, Pauwels RA, Van der Straeten ME. The effect of inhaled salmeterol on methacholine responsiveness in subjects with asthma up to 12 hours. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1992;89:811-815
64. 2 agonist salmeterol in mild to moderate asthmatic patients. Thorax 1993;48:1121-1124
65. 2 agonist formoterol. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;143:998-1001
66. Simons FER, Soni NR, Watson WT, et al. Bronchodilator and bronchoprotective effects of salmeterol in young patients with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1992;90:810-846
67. Rabe KF, Jorres R, Nowak D, et al. Comparison of the effects of salmeterol and formoterol on airway tone and responsiveness over 24 hours in bronchial asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;147:1436-1441
68. Maconochie JG, Denyer LH, Hassani H. Dose-related protection against histamine-induced bronchoconstriction by inhaled salmeterol. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 1994;32: 329-334
69. Soler M, Joos L, Bolliger CT, et al. Bronchoprotection by salmeterol: Cell stabilization or functional antagonism? Comparative effects on histamine- and AMP-induced bronchoconstriction. Eur Respir J 1994;7:1973-1977
70. Cartier A, Ghezzo H, L'Archeveque J, et al. Duration and magnitude of action of 50 and 100 micrograms of inhaled salmeterol in protecting against bronchoconstriction induced by hyperventilation of dry cold air in subjects with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1993;92:488-492
71. Nowak D, Jorres R, Rabe KF, et al. Salmeterol protects against hyperventilation-induced bronchoconstriction over 12 hours. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1992;43:591-595
72. 2 adrenergic agonist, has a longer blocking effect than albuterol on hyperventilation induced bronchoconstriction. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;142:1147-1152
73. 2-adrenergic receptor polymorphisms. News Physiol Sci 1995;10:265-273
74. 2-adrenoceptor polymorphism and susceptibility to bronchodilator desensitization in moderately severe stable asthma. Lancet 1997;350:995-999
75. Verberne AAPH, Frost C, Roorda RJ, et al. One year treatment with salmeterol compared with beclomethasone in children with asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 156:688-695
76. Kraft M, Wenzel SE, Bettinger CM, Martin RJ. The effect of salmeterol on nocturnal symptoms, airway function, and inflammation in asthma. Chest 1997;111:1249-1254
77. Witek TJ, Schachter EN. Adrenergic agents. In: Witek TJ, Schachter EN, eds. Pharmacology and Therapeutics in Respiratory Care. Philadelphia: WB. Saunders; 1994:137-165
78. Seifkin AD. Optimal pharmacologic treatment of the critically ill patient with obstructive airways disease. Am J Med 1996:100 (suppl 1A):6S-61S
79. Bellamy D, Penketh A. A cumulative dose comparison between salbutamol and fenoterol metered dose aerosols in asthmatic patients. Postgrad Med J 1987;63:459-461
80. Wong CS, Pavord ID, Williams J, et al. Bronchodilator, cardiovascular, and hypokalemic effects of fenoterol, salbutamol, and terbutaline in asthma. Lancet 1990;336:1396-1399
81. Bremmer P, Siebers R, Crane J, et al. Partial vs full β agonism. A clinical study of inhaled albuterol and fenoterol. Chest 1996;109:957-962
82. Blake KV, Hope M, Harman E, Hendeles L. Relative amount of albuterol delivered to lung receptors from a metered-dose inhaler and nebulizer solution. Bioassay by histamine bronchoprovocation. Chest 1992;101:309-315
83. Bouton DL, Goldsmith WM, Haponik EF. Substitution of metered-dose inhalers for hand-held nebulizers. Success and cost savings in a large acute-care hospital. Chest 1992;101:305-308
84. Lindgren S, Bake B, Larsson S. Clinical consequences of inadequate inhalation technique in asthma therapy. Eur J Respir Dis 1987;70:93-98
85. McFadden ER. Improper patient techniques with metered dose inhalers: Clinical consequences and solutions of misuse. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1995;96:278-283
86. Chapman KR, Love L, Brubaker H. A comparison of breath-actuated and conventional metered-dose inhalation techniques in elderly subjects. Chest 1993;104:1332-1337
87. Vilsvik J, Schaanning J, Stahl E, Holthe S. Comparison between bricanyl turbuhaler and ventolin metered dose inhaler in the treatment of exercise-induced asthma in adults. Ann Allergy 1991;67:315-318
88. Tinkelman DG, Vanden Burgt JA, Ekholm BP. Double-blind, clinical efficacy study comparing 400 μg of pirbuterol versus placebo delivered by a breath-actuated aerosol. J Asthma 1994;31:187-192
89. Suissa S, Ernst P, Boivin J-F, et al. A cohort analysis of excess mortality in asthma and the use of inhaled β agonists. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;149:604-610
90. Schuh S, Parkin P, Rajan A, et al. High- versus low-dose, frequently administered, nebulized albuterol in children with severe, acute asthma. Pediatrics 1989;83:513-518
91. Robertson CF, Smith F, Beck R, Levison H. Response to frequent low doses of nebulized salbutamol in acute asthma. J Pediatr 1985;106:672-674
92. Pansergrouw DF, Weich DJV, Le Roux FPJ. Beta-adrenergic receptor tachyphylaxis in acute severe asthma. S Afr Med J 1991;80:229-230
93. Appel D, Karpel JP, Sherman M. Epinephrine improves expiratory flow rates in patients with asthma who do not respond to inhaled metaproterenol sulphate. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1989;84:90-98
94. Browne GJ, Penna AS, Phung X, Soo M. Randomized trial of intravenous salbutamol in early management of acute severe asthma in children. Lancet 1997;349:301-305
95. Shrestha M, Bidadi K, Gourlay S, Hayes J. Continuous vs intermittent albuterol, at high and low doses, in the treatment of severe acute asthma in adults. Chest 1996;110: 42-47
96. 2 in children with severe asthma treated with continuously nebulized terbutaline. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1988;81:1101-1109
97. Rudnitsky GS, Eberlein RS, Schoffstall JM, et al. Comparison of intermittent and continuously nebulized albuterol treatment of asthma in an urban emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 1993;22:1842-1846
98. Papo MC, Frank J, Thompson AE. A prospective, randomized study of continuous versus intermittent nebulized albuterol for severe status asthmaticus in children. Crit Care Med 1993;21:1479-1486
99. Mandelberg A, Chen E, Noviski N, Priel IE. Nebulized wet aerosol treatment in the emergency department - is it essential? Comparison with large spacer device for metered-dose inhaler. Chest 1997;112:1501-1505
100. Fuglsang G, Pedersen S. Comparison of Nebuhaler and nebulizer treatment of acute severe asthma in children. Eur J Respir Dis 1986;69:109-113
101. Tarala RA, Madsen BW, Paterson JW. Comparative efficacy of salbutamol by pressurized aerosol and wet nebulizer in acute asthma. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1980;10:393-397
102. Freelander M, Van Asperen PP. Nebuhaler versus nebulizer in children with acute asthma. BMJ 1984;288:1873-1874
103. Salzman GA, Steele MT, Pribble JP, et al. Aerosolized metaproterenol in the treatment of asthmatics with severe airflow obstruction. Comparison of two delivery methods. Chest 1989;95:1017-1020
104. Colacone A, Afilalo M, Wolkove N, Kreisman H. A comparison of albuterol administered by metered dose inhaler (and holding chamber) or wet nebulizer in acute asthma. Chest 1993;101:835-811
105. Idris AU, McDermott MF, Raucci JC, et al. Emergency department treatment of severe asthma. Metered-dose inhaler plus holding chamber is equivalent in effectiveness to nebulizer. Chest 1993;103:665-672
106. Levitt MA, Gambrioli EF, Fink JB. Comparative trial of continuous nebulization versus metered-dose inhaler in the treatment of acute bronchospasm. Ann Emerg Med 1995;26:273-277
107. Turner JR, Corkery KJ, Eckman D, et al. Equivalence of continuous flow nebulizer and metered-dose inhaler with a reservoir for the treatment of acute airflow obstruction. Chest 1988;93:476-481
108. Karpel JP, Aldrich TK, Prezant DJ, et al. Emergency treatment of acute asthma with albuterol metered-dose inhaler plus a holding chamber. How often should treatments be administered? Chest 1997;112:348-356
109. Raimondi AC, Schottlender J, Lombards D, Molfino NA. Treatment of acute severe asthma with inhaled albuterol delivered via jet nebulizer, metered dose inhaler with spacer, or dry powder. Chest 1997;112:24-28
110. Tonnesen F, Laursen LC, Evald T, et al. Bronchodilating effect of terbutaline powder in acute severe bronchial obstruction. Chest 1991;105:697-700
111. Strauss L, Hejal R, Galan G, et al. Observations on the effects of aerosolized albuterol in acute asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:454-458
112. Uden DL, Goetz DR, Kohen DP, et al. Comparison of nebulized terbutaline and subcutaneous epinephrine in the treatment of acute asthma. Ann Emerg Med 1985;14:229-232
113. Pancorbo S, Fifield G, Davies S, et al. Subcutaneous epinephrine versus nebulized terbutaline in the emergency treatment of asthma. Clinical Pharmacy 1983;2:45-48
114. Becker AB, Nelson NA, Simons FER. Inhaled salbutamol (albuterol) vs injected epinephrine in the treatment of acute asthma in children. J Pediatr 1983;102:465-468
115. Tinkelman DG, Vanderpool GE, Carroll MS, et al. Comparison of nebulized terbutaline and subcutaneous epinephrine in the treatment of acute asthma. Ann Allergy 1983; 50:398-401
116. Youngchaiyud P, Charoenratanakul S. Terbutaline pressurized aerosol inhaled via a nebuhaler - an effective alternative to subcutaneous adrenaline for treatment of acute severe asthma. Eur J Respir Dis 1987;70:284-292
117. Quadrel M, Lavery RF, Jaker M, et al. Prospective, randomized trial of epinephrine, metaproterenol, and both in the prehospital treatment of asthma in the adult patient. Ann Emerg Med 1995;26:469-473
118. Naspitz CK, Sole D, Wandalsen N. Treatment of acute attacks of bronchial asthma. A comparative study of epinephrine (subcutaneous) and fenoterol (inhalation). Ann Allergy 1987;59:21-24
119. Baughman RP, Ploysongsang Y, James W. A comparative study of aerosolized terbutaline and subcutaneously administered epinephrine in the treatment of acute bronchial asthma. Ann Allergy 1984;53:131-134
120. Janson C, Herala M, Sjogren I. Nebulization versus injection in ambulatory treatment of acute asthma: A comparative study. Br J Dis Chest 1988;82:317-353
121. Fanta CH, Rossing TH, McFadden ER. Treatment of acute asthma. Is combination therapy with sympathomimetics and methylxanthines indicated? Am J Med 1986;80: 5-10
122. Newhouse MT, Chapman KR, McCallum AL, et al. Cardiovascular safety of high doses of inhaled fenoterol and albuterol in acute severe asthma. Chest 1996;110: 595-603
123. Likura Y, Matsumoto T, Fujita K, et al. Continuous isoproterenol inhalation therapy in children with severe asthmatic attack. Int Arch Allergy Immnnol 1997;113:370-372
124. Shrestha M, Gourlay S, Robertson S, et al. Isoetharine versus albuterol for acute asthma: Greater immediate effect, but more side effects. Am J Med 1996;100:323-327
125. Dhand R, Tobin MJ. Inhaled bronchodilator therapy in mechanically ventilated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;156:3-10
126. Manthous CA, Chatila W, Schmidt GA, et al. Treatment of bronchospasm by metered-dose inhaler albuterol in mechanically ventilated patients. Chest 1995;107:210-213
127. Dhand R, Jubran A, Tobin MJ. Bronchodilator delivery by metered-dose inhaler in ventilator-supported patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:1827-1833
128. Torres A, Andres M, Anderson P, Heulitt M. Efficacy of metered-dose inhaler administration of albuterol in intubated infants. Chest 1997:112:484-490
129. Fuller HD, Dolovich MB, Posmituck G, et al. Pressurized aerosol versus jet aerosol delivery to mechanically ventilated patients. Comparison of dose to the lungs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;141:440-444
130. 2-adrenergic receptors in vivo. J Clin Invest 1995;96:99-106
131. Turner-Warwick M. Epidemiology of nocturnal asthma. Am J Med 1988;85:6-8
132. Wooley M, Anderson SD, Quigley BM. Duration of protective effect of terbutaline sulphate and cromolyn sodium alone and in combination on exercise-induced asthma. Chest 1990;97:39-45
133. Berkowitz R, Schwartz E, Bukstein MD, et al. Albuterol (salbutamol) protects against exercise-induced asthma longer than metaproterenol sulphate. Pediatrics 1986;77: 173-179
134. Anderson S, Seale JP, Ferris L, et al. An evaluation of pharmacotherapy for exercise-induced asthma. J Allegy Clin Immunol 1979;64:612-624
135. Daugbjerg P, Nielsen KG, Skov M, Bisgaard H. Duration of action of formoterol and salbutamol dry-powder inhalation in prevention of exercise-induced asthma in children. Acta Pediatr 1996;85:684-687
136. Carlsen K-H, Roksund O, Olsholt K, et al. Overnight protection by inhaled salmeterol on exercise-induced asthma in children. Eur Respir J 1995;8:1852-1855
137. Inman MD, O'Byrne PM. The effect of regular inhaled albuterol on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:65-69