Oxidative stress and preeclampsia

Fetal and Maternal Medicine Review

Volumn 9, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 73-101

  Hubel, Carl A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION; LIPID PEROXIDATION; OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PLACENTA PERFUSION; PREECLAMPSIA; REVIEW;

EID: 0030827854     PISSN: 09655395     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0965539597000065     Document Type: Review

References (314)

1. Chesley LC. Orientation. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1978; 1-15
2. Roberts JM, Redman CW. Pre-eclampsia: more than pregnancy-induced hypertension. Lancet 1993; 341: 1447-451.
3. Roberts JM. Pregnancy-related hypertension. In: Creasy RK, Resnik R eds. Maternal Fetal Medicine. Philadephia: WB Saunders, 1994: 804-43.
4. Redman CWG. Current topic: pre-eclampsia and the placenta. Placenta 1991; 12: 301-308.
5. Friedman SA, Taylor RN, Roberts JM. Pathophysiology of preeclampsia. Clin Perinatol 1991; 18: 661-82.
6. deGroot CJ, Taylor RN. New insights into the etiology of pre-eclampsia. Ann Med 1993; 25; 243-49.
7. Roberts JM, Taylor RN, Goldfien A. Clinical and biochemical evidence of endothelial cell dysfunction in the pregnancy syndrome preeclampsia. Am J Hypertens 1991; 4: 700-708.
8. Roberts JM, Taylor RN, Goldfien A. Endothelial cell activation as a pathogenetic factor in preeclampsia. Seminars Perinatol 1991; 15: 86-93.
9. Roberts JM, Taylor RN, Musci TJ, Todgers GM, Hubel CA, McLaughlin MK. Preeclampsia: an endothelial cell disorder. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990; 163; 1365-66.
10. Zhou Y, Damsky CH, Chiu K, Roberts JM, Fisher SJ. Preeclampsia is associated with abnormal expression of adhesion molecules by invasive cytotrophoblasts. J Clin Invest 1993; 91: 950-60.
11. Cross JC. Trophoblast function in normal and preeclamptic pregnancy. Fetal Maternal Med Rev 1996; 8: 57-66.
12. Ness RB, Roberts JM. Heterogeneous causes constituting the single syndrome of preeclampsia: A hypothesis and its implications. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 175; 1365-70.
13. Sattar N, Gaw A, Packard CJ, Greer IA. Potential pathogenic roles of aberrant lipoprotein and fatty acid metabolism in pre-eclampsia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996; 103: 614-20.
14. Hubel CA, McLaughlin MK, Evans RW, Hauth BA, Sims CJ, Roberts JM. Fasting serum triglycerides, free fatty acids and malondialdehyde are increased in preeclampsia, are positively correlated and decrease within 48 hours post partum. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 174; 975-82.
15. Kaaja R, Tikkanen MJ, Viinikka L, Ylikorkala O. Serum lipoproteins, insulin, and urinary postanoid metabolites in normal and hypertensive pregnant women. Obstet Gynecol 1995; 85: 353-56.
16. Lorentzen B, Endresen MJ, Clausen T, Henriksen T. Fasting serum free fatty acids and triglycerides are increased before 20 weeks of gestation in women who later develop preeclampsia. Hypertens Preg 1994; 13; 103-109.
17. Hubel CA, Roberts JM, Taylor RN, Nusci TJ, Rogers GM, McLaughlin MK. Lipid peroxidation in pregnancy: new perspectives on preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 161: 1025-1034.
18. Walsh SC. Lipid peroxidation in pregnancy. Hypertens Preg 1994; 13: 1-25.
19. Zeeman GG, Dekker GA. Pathogenesis of preeclampsia: A hypothesis. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1992; 35: 317-37.
20. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC, Cross CE. Free radicals, antioxidants and human disease: where are we now? J Lab Clin Med 1992; 119: 598-620.
21. Halliwell B. Reactive oxygen species in living systems: source, biochemistry and role in human disease. Am J Med 1991; 91; 14S-22S.
22. Halliwell B. The role of oxygen radicals in human disease, with particular reference to the vascular system. Haemostasis 1993; 23: 118-26.
23. Halliwell B. Free radicals, antioxodants, and human disease: curiosity, cause, or consequence? Lancet 1994; 344: 721-24.
24. Buettner GR. The pecking order of free radicals and antioxidants: lipid peroxidation, α-tocopherol and ascorbate. Arch Biochem Biophys 1993; 300; 535-43.
25. Berliner JA, Heinecke JA. The role of oxidized lipoproteins in atherogenesis. Free Radic Biol Med 1996; 20: 707-27.
26. Gutteridge JMC. Invited review free radicals in disease processes: a compilation of cause and consequence. Free Rad Res Comms 1993; 19: 141-58.
27. Yu, B.P. Cellular defences against damage from reactive oxygen species. Physiol Rev 1994; 74: 139-62.
28. Witztum JL. The oxidation hypothesis of atherosclerosis. Lancet 1994; 344: 793-95.
29. Sen CK, Packer L. Antioxidant and redox regulation of gene transcription. FASEB J 1996; 10: 709-20.
30. Suzuki YJ, Forman HJ, Sevanian A. Oxidants as stimulators of signal transduction. Free Radic Biol Med 1997; 22: 269-85.
31. Chwalisz K, Buhimschi I, Garfield RE. Role of nitric oxide in obstetrics. Prenat Neonat Med 1996; 1: 292-28.
32. Seligman SP, Buyon JP, Clancy RM, Young BK, Abramson SB. The role of nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171; 944-48.
33. Sladek SM, Magness RR, Conrad KP. Nitric oxide and pregnancy. Am J Physiol 1997; 242: R441-63.
34. Weiner CP, Thompson LP, Voorhis BJV. The role of nitric oxide in female reproduction. Fet Mat Med Rev 1995; 7: 175-205.
35. Halliwell B, Chirico S. Lipid peroxidation: its mechanism, measurement, and significance. Am J Clin Nutr 1993; 57: 715S-25S.
36. Cowan CL, Steffen RP. Lysophosphatidylcholine inhibits relaxation of rabbit abdominal aorta mediated by endothelium-derived nitric oxide and endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor independent of protein kinase C activation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1995; 15: 2290-97.
37. Esterbauer H, Schaur RJ, Zollner H. Chemistry and biochemistry of 4-hydroxynonenal, malonaldehyde and related aldehydes. Free Rad Biol Med 1991; 11: 81-128.
38. Esterbauer H. Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of lipid-oxidation products. Am J Clin Nutr 1993; 57:779S-86S.
39. Radi R, Beckman JS, Freeman BA. Peroxynitrite-induced membrane lipid oxidation: the cytotoxic potential of Superoxide and nitric oxide. Arch Biochem Biophys 1991; 288: 481-87.
40. Freeman BA, White CR, Gutierrez H, Martinez AP, Tarpey MM, Rubbo H. Oxygen radical-nitric oxide reactions in vascular diseases. Adv Pharmacol 1995; 34: 45-69.
41. Wardman P, Candeias LP. Fenton chemistry: an introduction. Radiation Res 1996; 145: 523-31.
42. Packer L. Oxidative stress, antioxidants, aging and disease. In: Cutler RG, Packer L, Bertram J, Mori A eds. Oxidative stress and aging. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhauser Verlag, 1995: 1-14.
43. Halliwell B. Free radicals and antioxidants: a personal view. Nutr Rev 1994; 52; 253-65.
44. Schreck R, Baeuerle PA. A role for oxygen radicals as second messengers. Trends in Cell Biol 1991; 1: 39-42.
45. Smith WL, Marnett LJ, DeWitt DL. Prostaglandin and thromboxane biosynthesis. Pharmac Ther 1991; 49: 153-79.
46. Kirschner RE, Fantini GA. Role of iron and oxygen-derived free radicals in ischemia-reperfusion injury. J Am Coll Sur 1994; 179: 103-17.
47. Omar B, McCord J, Downey J. Ischaemia-reperfusion. In: Sies H ed. Oxidative stress: oxidants and antioxidants. New York: Academic Press, 1991: 493-527.
48. Sussman MS, Bulkley GB. Oxygen-derived free radicals in reperfusion injury. In: Packer L, ed. Methods in enzymology Vol 186. San Diego: Academic Press 1990; 711-23.
49. Bulkley GB. Reactive oxygen metabolites and reperfusion injury: aberrant triggering of reticuloendothelial function. Lancet 1994; 344: 934-36.
50. Fridovich I. Superoxide radical and Superoxide dismutases. Annu Rev Biochem 1995; 64: 97-112.
51. Stocker R, Frei B. Endogenous antioxidant defences in human blood plasma. In: Sies H ed. Oxidative Stress: Oxidants and Antioxidants: San Diego: Academic Press, 1991: 213-43.
52. Chance B, Sies H, Boveris A. Hydroperoxide metabolism in mammalian organs. Physiol Rev 1979; 59: 527-605.
53. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. The antioxidants of human extracellular fluids. Arch Biochem Biophys 1990; 280: 1-8.
54. Gutteridge JMC, Quintan GJ. Antioxidant protection against organic and inorganic oxygen radicals by normal human plasma: the important primary role for iron-binding and iron-oxidising proteins. Biochim Biophys Acta 1993; 1156; 144-50.
55. Cranfield LM, Gollan JL, White AG, Dormandy TL. Serum antioxidant activity in normal and abnormal subjects. Ann Clin Biochem 1979; 16: 299-306.
56. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JM. Role of free radicals and catalytic metal ions in human disease: an overview. In: Packer L, Glazer AN eds. Oxygen radicals in biological systems. Vol 186. San Diego: Academic Press Inc., 1990: 1-83.
57. Everse J, Johnson MC, Marini MA. Peroxidative activities of haemoglobin and haemoglobin derivatives. In: Everse J, Vandefriff KD, Winslow RM eds. Methods in enzymol. Vol 231. New York: Academic Press Inc. 1994: 547-61.
58. Gutteridge JMC. The antioxidant activity of haptoglobin towards haemoglobin-stimulated lipid peroxidation. Biochem Biophys Acta 1987; 917; 219-23.
59. Balla G, Jacob HS, Balla J, Rosenberg M, Nath K, Fapple F et al. Ferritin: a cytoprotective antioxidant strategem of endothelium. J Biol Chem 1992; 267; 18148-53.
60. Halliwell B. Vitamin C: antioxidant or prooxidant in vivo. Free Rad Res 1996; 25: 439-54.
61. Pepper JR, Mumby S, Gutteridge JMC. Sequential oxidative damage, and changes in iron-binding and iron-oxidising plasma antioxidants during cardiopulmonary bypass surgery. Free Rad Res 1994; 21: 377-85.
62. Berger HM, Mumby S, Gutteridge JMC. Ferrous ions detected in iron-overloaded cord blood plasma from preterm and term babies: implications for oxidative stress. Free Rad Res 1994; 22: 555-59.
63. Stocker R, Bowry VW. Tocopherol-mediated peroxidation of lipoprotein lipids and its inhibition by co-antioxidants. In: Cadenas E, Packer L eds. Handbook of antioxidants. Vol. 3. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc. 1996: 27-41.
64. Niki E. Vitamin C as an antioxidant. World Rev Nutr Diet 1991; 64; 1-30.
65. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. The definition and measurement of antioxidant in biological systems. Free Radic Biol Med 1995; 18: 125-26.
66. Gutteridge JMC. Antioxidant properties of the proteins caeruloplasmin, albumin and transferrin. A study of their activity in serum and synovial fluid from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Biochim Biophys Acta 1986; 869: 119-27.
67. Davidge ST, Hubel CA, Brayden RD, Capeless EC, McLaughlin MK. Sera antioxidant activity in uncomplicated and preeclamptic pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 1992; 79: 897-901.
68. Hubel CA, Kozlov AV, Evans RW, Davidge ST, McLlaughlin MK, Roberts JM. Decreased transferrin and increased transferrin saturation in sera of women with preeclampsia: Implications for oxidative stress. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 175: 692-700.
69. Uotila JT, Kirkkola AL, Rorarius M, Guimala RJ, Metsa-Ketela T. The total peroxyl radical-trapping ability of plasma and cerebrospinal fluid in normal and preeclamptic pregnancies. Free Radic Biol Med; 16: 581-90.
70. Becker BF. Towards the physiological function of uric acid. Free Rad Biol Med 1993; 14: 615-31.
71. Spiteller G. Enzymic lipid peroxidation - A consequence of cell injury. Free Radic Biol Med 1996; 21: 1003-1009.
72. Janero DR. Malondialdehyde and thiobarbituric acid-reactivity as diagnostic indices of lipid peroxidation and peroxidative tissue injury. Free Radic Biol Med 1990; 9; 515-40.
73. Pryor WA, Godber SS. Noninvasive measures of oxidative stress status in humans. Free Radic Biol Med 1991; 10: 177-84.
74. Puhl H, Waeg G, Esterbauer H. Methods to determine oxidation of low-density lipoproteins. In: Packer L ed. Methods in enzymology. Vol 233. San Diego: Academic Press, 1994: 425-41.
75. Harlan JM. Neutrophil-mediated vascular injury. Acta Med Scand 1987; 715: 123-29.
76. Gorog P, Kovacs IB. Lipid peroxidation by activated platelets: a possible link between thrombosis and atherogenesis. Atherosclerosis 1995; 115: 121-28.
77. Aviram M. LDL-platelet interaction under oxidative stress induces macrphage foam cell formation. Thromb Haemost 1995; 74: 560-64.
78. Chisolm GM, Irwin KC, Penn MS. Lipoprotein oxidation and lipoprotein-induced cell injury in diabetes. Diabetes 1992; 41: 61-66.
79. Steinberg D, Parthasarathy S, Carew TE, Khoo JC, Witztum JL. Beyond cholesterol: modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity. N Engl J Med 1989; 320; 915-24.
80. Yla-Herttuala S, Palinski W, Rosenfeld ME, Parthasarathy S, Carew TE, Butler S et al. Evidence for the presence of oxidatively modified low density lipoprotein in atherosclerotic lesions of rabbit and man. J Clin Invest 1989; 84: 1086-95.
81. Dabbagh AJ, Frei B. Human suction blister interstitial fluid prevents metal ion-dependent oxidation of low density lipoprotein by macrophages and in cell-free systems. J Clin Invest 1995; 96; 1958-66.
82. Parhami F, Fang ZT, Fogelman AM, Andalibi A, Territo MC, Berliner JA. Minimally modified low density lipoprotein-induced inflammatory responses in endothelial cells are mediated by cyclic adenosine monophosphate. J Clin Invest 1993; 92: 471-78.
83. Navab M, Berliner JA, Watson AD, Hama SY, Territo MC, Lusis AJ et al. The yin and yang of oxidation in the development of the fatty streak. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1996; 15; 831-42.
84. Frei B, Gaziano JM. Content of antioxidants, preformed lipid hydroperoxides, and cholesterol as predictors of the susceptibility of human LDL to metal ion-dependent and -independent oxidation. J Lipid Res 1993; 34: 2135-45.
85. Witztum JL. Susceptibility of low-density lipoprotein to oxidative modification. Am J Med 1993; 94: 347-49.
86. Haberland ME, Fong D, Cheng L. Malondialdehyde-altered protein occurs in atheroma of watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbits. Science 1988; 241: 215-18.
87. Salonen JT, Yla-Herttuala S, Yamamoto R, Butler S, Korpela H, Salonen R et al. Autoantibody against oxidized LDL and progression of carotid atherosclerosis. Lancet 1992; 339: 883-87.
88. Fisher KA, Luger A, Spargo BH, Lindheimer MD. Hypertension in pregnancy: Clinical-pathological correlations and remote prognosis. Medicine 1981; 60: 267-76.
89. McCartney CP, Spargo BH, Larincz AB, Lefebure Y, Newton RE. Renal structure and function in pregnant patients with acute hypertension. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1964; 90: 579-90.
90. Redman CWG, Denson KWE, Beilin LJ. Factor-VIII consumption in preeclampsia. Lancet 1977; 2: 1249.
91. Fitzgerald DJ, Entmann SS, Mulloy K, Fitzgerald GA. Decreased prostacyclin biosynthesis preceding the clinical manifestation of pregnancy-induced hypertension. Circulation 1987; 75: 956-63.
92. Remuzzi G, Marchesi D, Zoja C, Muratore D, Mecca G, Misiani R et al. Reduced umbilical and placental vascular prostacyclin in severe preeclampsia. Prostaglandins 1980; 20: 105-10.
93. Taylor RN, Varma M, Teng NN, Roberts JM. Women with preeclampsia have higher plasma endothelin levels than women with normal pregnancies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990; 71: 1675-77.
94. Hsu CD, Iriye B, Johnson TRB, Witter FR, Hong SF, Chan DW. Elevated circulating thrombomodulin in' severe preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169: 148-49.
95. Taylor RN, Crombleholme WR, Friedman SA, Jones LA, Casal DC, Roberts JM. High plasma cellular fibronectin levels correlate with biochemical and clinical features of preeclampsia but cannot be attributed to hypertension alone. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991; 165: 895-901.
96. Taylor RN, Heilbron DC, JM Roberts. Growth factor activity in the blood of women in whom preeclampsia develops is elevated from early pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991; 163: 1839-44.
97. Redman CWG, Bonnar J, Beilin L. Early platelet consumption in pre-eclampsia. Brit Med J 1978; 1; 467-69.
98. Nisell H, Hjemdahl P, Linde B. Cardiovascular responses to circulating catecholamines in normal pregnancy and pregnancy-induced hypertension. Clin Physiol 1985; 5; 479-93.
99. Gant NF, Daley GL, Chand S, Whalley PJ, MacDonald PC. A study of angiotensin II pressor response throughout primigravid pregnancy. J Clin Invest 1973; 52: 268-89.
100. Belfort MA, Saade GR. Retinal vasospasm associated with visual disturbance in preeclampsia Color flow doppler findings. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169: 523-25.
101. Valluri S, Adelberg DA, Curtis RS, Olk RJ. Diagnostic indocyanine green angiography in preeclampsia. Am J Ophthalmol 1996; 122; 672-77.
102. Toborek M, Hennig B. Is endothelial cell autocrine production of tumour necrosis factor a mediator of lipid-induced endothelial dysfunction. Med Hypoth 1996; 47; 377-82.
103. Bhatia RK, Bottoms SF, Saleh AA, Norman GS, Mammen EF, Sokol RJ. Mechanisms for reduced colloid osmotic pressure in preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987; 157: 106-108.
104. Knock GA, Poston L. Bradykinin-mediated relaxation of isolated maternal resistance arteries in normal pregnancy and preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 175: 1668-74.
105. Taylor RN, Casal DC, Jones LA, Varma M, Martin JN, Roberts JM. Selective effects of preeclamptic sera on human endothelial cell procoagulant protein expression. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991; 165: 1705-10.
106. Taylor RN, Musci TJ, Rodgers GM, Roberts JM. Preeclamptic sera stimulate increased platelet-derived growth factor mRNA and protein expression by cultured human endothelial cells. Am J Reprod Immunol 1991; 25; 105-108.
107. Lorentzen B, Endresen MJ, Hovig T, Haug E, Henriksen T. Sera from preeclamptic women increase the content of triglycerides and reduce the release of prostacyclin in cultured endothelial cells. Thromb Res 1991; 63; 363-72.
108. Baker PN, Davidge ST, Barankiewicz, J, Roberts JM. Plasma of preeclamptic women stimulates and then inhibits endothelial prostacyclin. Hypertension 1996; 27; 56-61.
109. Davidge ST, Baker PN, Roberts JM. NOS expression is increased in endothelial cells exposed to plasma from women with preeclampsia. Am J Physiol 1995; 269 Heart Circ Physiol: H1106-12.
110. Baker PN, Davidge ST, Roberts JM. Plasma from patients with preeclampsia increases endothelial cell nitric oxide production. Hypertension 1995; 26 244-48.
111. Davidge ST, Signorella AP, Hubel CA, Lykins DL, Roberts JM. Distinct factors in plasma of preeclamptic women increase endothelial nitric oxide or prostacyclin. Hypertension 1996; 28: 758-64.
112. Robert JS, Cotran RS. Cytokines and endothelial cell biology. Physiol Rev 1990; 70; 427-51.
113. deGroot CJM, Taylor RN. New insights into the etiology of preeclampsia. Annals Med 1993; 25: 243-49.
114. Piering WF, Garancis JG, Becker CG, Beres JA, Lemann J. Preeclampsia related to a functioning extrauterine placenta: report of a case and 25 year follow-up. Am J Disney Dis 1993; 21; 310-13.
115. Page EW. The relation between hydatid moles, relative ischemia of the gravid uterus, and the placental origin of preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1939; 37; 291-93.
116. Ramsey EM, Donna MW. Clinical aspects. Placental Vasculature and Circulation. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1980: 79-84.
117. Brosens I. How the role of the spiral arteries in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia was discovered. Hypertens Preg 1996; 15: 143-46.
118. Sheppard BL, Bonnar J. An ultrastructural study of uteroplacental spiral arteries in hypertensive and normotensive pregnancy and fetal growth retardation. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1981; 88: 695-705.
119. Trudinger BJ, Giles WD, Cook CM, Bombarderi J, Collins L. Fetal umbilical artery flow velocity waveforms and placental resistance: clinical significance. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985; 92; 23-30.
120. Lunell NO, Lewander R, Mamoun I, Nylund L, Sarby S, Thornstrom S. Uteroplacental blood flow in pregnancy induced hypertension. Scant J Clin Lab Invest 1984; 44: 28-35.
121. Kaar K, Jouppila P, Kuikka J, Luotola H, Toivanen J, Rekonen A. Intervillous blood flow in normal and complicated late pregnancy measured by means of an intravenous Xe method. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1980; 59: 7-11.
122. Wigglesworth JS. Morphologic variations in the insufficient placenta. J Obstet Gynecol Brit Commonw 1964; 71: 871-84.
123. Tominaga T, Page EW. Accommodation of the human placenta to hypoxia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1966; 94: 679-85.
124. Zamudio S, Palmer SK, Regensteiner JG, Moore LG. High altitude and hypertension during pregnancy. Am J Human Biol 1995; 7: 183-93.
125. Zamudio S, Palmer SK, Dahms TE, Berman JC, Young DA, Moore LG. Alterations in uteroplacental blood flow precede hypertension in preeclampsia at high altitude. J Appl Physiol 1995; 79: 15-22.
126. Conrad KP Benyo DF. Placental cytokines and the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Am J Reprod Immunol 1997; 37: 240-49.
127. Smarason AK, Sargent IL, Starkey PM, Redman CWG. The effect of placental syncytiotrophoblast microvillous membranes from normal and preeclamptic women on the growth of endothelial cells in vitro. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 100; 943-49.
128. Cooper JC, Sharkey AM, Charnock-Jones DS, Palmer CR, Smith SK. VEGF mRNA levels in placentae from pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 103; 1191-96.
129. Kuroki M, Voest EE, Amano S, Beerepoot LV, Takashima S, Tolentino M et al. Reactive oxygen intermediates increase vascular endothelial growth factor expression in vitro and in vivo. J Clin Invest 1996; 98: 1667-75.
130. Beckman JS. Oxidative damage and tyrosine nitration from peroxynitrite. Chem Res Toxicol 1996; 9; 836-44.
131. Beckman JS, Koppenol WH. Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad and the ugly. Am J Physiol 1996; 271: C1424-37.
132. Vliet AVD, Smith D, O'Neill CA, Kaur H, Darley-Usmar V, Cross CE et al. Interactions of peroxynitrite with human plasma and its constituents; oxidative damage and antioxidant depletion. Biochem J 1994; 303: 295-301.
133. Rubbo H, Radi R, Trujillo M, Telleri R, Kalyanaraman B, Barnes S et al. Nitric oxide regulation of superoxide and peroxynitrite-dependent lipid peroxidation. J Biol Chem 1994; 269: 26066-75.
134. Goda N, Suematsu M, Mukai M, Kiyokawa K, Natori M, Nozawa S et al. Modulation of mitochondrion-mediated oxidative stress by nitric oxide in human placental trophoblastic cells. Am J Physiol 1996; 271: H1893-99.
135. Beckman JS, Ye YZ, Anderson PG, Chen J, Accavitti MA, Tarpey MM et al. Extensive nitration of protein tyrosines in human atherosclerosis detected by immunohistochemistry. Biol Chem Hoppe-Seyler 1994; 375: 81-88.
136. Kooy NW, Royall JA, Ye YZ, Kelly DR, Beckman JS. Evidence for in vivo peroxynitrite production in human acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151: 1250-54.
137. Myatt L, Rosenfield RB, Eis ALW, Brockman DE, Greer I, Lyall F. Nitrotyrosine residues in placenta: evidence of peroxynitrite formation and action. Hypertension 1996; 28: 488-93.
138. Kumura E, Kosaka H, Shiga T, Yoshimine T, Hayakawa T. Elevation of plasma nitric oxide end products during focal cerebral ischemia and reperfusion in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1994; 14: 487-91.
139. Kooy NW, Royall JA. Agonist-induced peroxynitrite production from endothelial cells. Arch Biochem Biophys 1994: 310: 352-59.
140. Radi R, Cosgrove TP, Beckman JS, Freeman BA. Peroxynitrite-induced luminol chemiluminescence. Biochem J 1993; 290: 51-57.
141. Carreras MC, Pargament GA, Catz SD, Poderoso JJ, Boveris A. Kinetics of nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide production and formation of peroxynitrite during the respiratory burst of human neutrophils. FEBS Letters 1994; 341: 65-68.
142. Conrad KP, Vill M, McGuire PG, Dail WG, Davis AK. Expression of nitric oxide synthase by syncytiotrophoblast in human placental villi. FASEB J 1993; 7: 1269-76.
143. Bonet B, Chait A, Gown AM, Knopp RH. Metabolism of modified LDL by cultured human placental cells. Atherosclerosis 1995; 112: 125-36.
144. Ischiropoulos H, Zhu L, Beckman JS. Peroxynitrite formation from macrophage-derived nitric oxide. Arch Biochem Biophys 1992; 298: 446-51.
145. Many A, Hubel CA, Roberts JM. Hyperuricemia and xanthine oxidase in preeclampsia, revisited. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 174: 288-91.
146. Many A, Westerhausen-Larson A, Kanbour-Shakir A, Roberts JM. Xanthine oxidase/ dehydrogenase is present in human placenta. Placenta 1996; 17: 361-65.
147. Many A, Friedman SA, Hubel CA, Roberts JM. Xanthine oxidase activity in preeclamptic women is higher in invasive but not villous trophoblast. J Soc Gynecol Invest 1966; 3: 86A (Abstract).
148. Many A, Zhou Y, Hubel CA, Fisher SJ, Roberts JM. Invasive cytotrophoblast manifest evidence of oxidative stress in preeclampsia. Submitted.
149. Takehara Y, Yoshioka T, Sasaki J. Changes in the levels of lipoperoxide and antioxidant factors in human placenta during gestation. Acta Med Okayama 1990; 44: 103-11.
150. Sekiba K, Yoshioka T. Changes of lipid peroxidation and superoxide dismutase activity in the human placenta. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979; 135: 368-71.
151. Pandey S, Gujrati VR, Chandravati, Sanger KCS, Shanker K. Status of human placental lipid peroxidation, superoxide dismutase and catalase during pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH). Asia Pacific J Pharmacol 1995; 10: 41-44.
152. Poranen AK, Ekblad U, Uotila P, Ahotupa M. Lipid peroxidation and antioxidants in normal and pre-eclamptic pregnancies. Placenta 1996; 17: 401-405.
153. Wang Y, Walsh SW. Antioxidant activities and mRNA expression of superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase in normal and preeclamptic placentas. J Soc Gynecol Invest 1996; 3: 179-84.
154. Myatt L, Eis ALW, Brockman DE, Greer IA, Lyall F. Differential localization of superoxide dismutase isoforms in placental villous tissue. J Soc Gynecol Invest 1996; 3: 226A (Abstract).
155. Chen G, Wilson R, Cumming G, Walker JJ, Smith WE, McKillop JH. Intracellular and extracellular antioxidant buffering levels in erythrocytes from pregnancy-induced hypertension. J Human Hyper 1994; 3: 37-42.
156. Wisdom SJ, Wilson R, McKillip JH, Walker JJ. Antioxidant systems in normal pregnancy and in pregnancy-induced hypertension. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991; 165: 1701-704.
157. Warner HR. Superoxide dismutase, aging and degenerative disease. Free Rad Biol Med 1994; 17: 249-58.
158. Lu D, Maulik N, Moraru II, Kreutzer DL, Das DK. Molecular adaptation of vascular endothelial cells to oxidative stress. Am J Physio 1993; 264: C715-C722.
159. Fiers W. Tumor necrosis factor. Characterization at the molecular, cellular and in vivo level. FEBS Letters 1991; 285: 199-212.
160. Stark JM. Pre-eclampsia and cytokine induced oxidative stress. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 100: 105-109.
161. Furui T, Kurauchi O, Tanaka M, Mizutani S, Ozawa T, Tomoda Y. Decrease in cytochrome c oxidase and cytochrome oxidase subunit I messenger RNA levels in preeclamptic pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 1994; 84: 283-88.
162. Folgero T, Storbakk N, Torbergsen T, Oian P. Mutations in mitochondrial transfer ribonucleic acid genes in preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 174: 1636-40.
163. Torbergsen T, Oian P, Mathiesen E, Borud O. Preeclampsia - a mitochondrial disease? Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1989; 68: 145-48.
164. Walsh SW, Wang Y. Deficient glutathione peroxidase activity in preeclampsia is associated with increased placental production of thromboxane and lipid peroxides. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169; 1456-61.
165. Warso MA, Lands WEM. Lipid peroxidation in relation to prostacyclin and thromboxane physiology and pathophysiology. Brit Med Bull 1983; 39: 277-80.
166. Hemler ME, Lands WEM. Evidence for a peroxide-initiated free radical mechanism of prostaglandin synthesis. J Biol Chem 1980; 255: 6253-61.
167. Moncada S, Vane JR. The discovery of prostacyclin - a fresh insight into arachidonic acid metabolism. In: Kharasch N, Fried J eds. Biochemical aspects of prostaglandins and thromboxanes. New York: Academic Press, 1977: 155-77.
168. Wetzka B, Charnock-Jones DS, Viville B, Cooper JC, Nusing R, Zahradnik HP et al. Expression of prostacyclin and thromboxane synthases in placenta and placental bed after pre-eclamptic pregnancies. Placenta 1996; 17: 573-81.
169. Walsh SW, Wang Y. Secretion of lipid peroxides by the human placenta. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169: 1462-66.
170. Walsh SW, Wang Y. Trophoblast and placental villous core production of lipid peroxides, thromboxane and prostacyclin in preeclampsia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80: 1888-93.
171. Walsh SW, Wang Y, Jesse R. Placental production of lipid peroxides, thromboxane, and prostacyclin in preeclampsia. Hypertens Preg 1995; 15:101-11.
172. Pryor WA, Castle L. Chemical methods for the detection of lipid hydroperoxides. In: Packer L ed. Methods enzymol. Vol. 105. San Diego: Academic Press 1984: 293-99.
173. Walsh SW, Wang Y, Vaughan JE. Placental production of 8-isoprostane is significantly increased in preeclampsia. J Soc Gynecol Invest 1997; 4: 96A (Abstract).
174. Cester N, Staffolani R, Rabini RA, Maganelli R, Salvolini E, Galassi R et al. Pregnancy induced hypertension: A role for peroxidation in microvillus plasma membranes. Mol Cell Biochem 1994; 131: 151-55.
175. Nelson GH, Zuspan FP, Mulligan LT. Defects of lipid metabolism in toxemia of pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1966; 94310-15.
176. Morris J, Endresen MJR, Watts A, Linton E, Redman CWG. Pre-eclamptic placental syncytiotrophoblast microvillous membranes have altered fluidity and inhibit endothelial cell proliferation. Hypertens Preg 1997; 16: 78 (Abstract).
177. De Wolf F, Robertson WB, Brosens I. The ultrastructure of acute atherosis in hypertensive pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1975; 123: 164-74.
178. Haust MD, Heras JL, Harding PG. Fat-containing uterine smooth muscle cells in "toxemia": possible relevance to atherosclerosis Science 1977; 195: 1353-54.
179. Fox H. Pathology of the Placenta. London: WB Saunders, 1978: 213-37.
180. Hansen PR, Stawski G. Neutrophil mediated damage to isolated myocytes after anoxia and reoxygenation. Cardiovasc Res 1994; 28: 565-69.
181. Hazen SL, Hsu FF, Mueller DM, Crowley JR, Heinecke JW. Human neutrophils employ chlorine gas as an oxidant during phagocytosis. J Clin Invest 1996; 98: 1283-89.
182. Hardy SJ, Ferrante A, Poulos A, Robinson BS, Johnson DW, Murray AW. Effect of exogenous fatty acids with greater than 22 carbon atoms (very long chain fatty acids) on superoxide production by human neutrophils. J Immunol 1994; 153: 1574-61.
183. Pronai L, Hiramatsu K, Saigusa Y, Nakazawa H. Low superoxide scavenging activity associated with enhanced superoxide generation by monocytes from male hypertriglyceridemia with and without diabetes. Atherosclerosis 1991; 90: 30-47.
184. Gorog P. Activation of human blood monocytes by oxidized polyunsaturated fatty acids: a possible mechanism for the generation of lipid peroxides in the circulation. Int J Exp Pathol 1991;72: 227-37.
185. Maeba R, Maruyama A, Taruntani O, Uea N, Shimasaki H. Oxidized low-density lipoprotein induces the production of superoxide by neutrophils. FEBS Letters 1995; 377: 309-12.
186. Zeman K, Kantorski J, Paleolog EM, Feldmann M, Tchorzewski H. The role of receptors for tumour necrosis factor-α in the induction of human polymorphonuclear neutrophil chemiluminescence. Immunol Lett 1996; 53: 45-50.
187. Lyall F, Greer IA. Pre-eclampsia: a multifaceted vascular disorder of pregnancy. J Hypertens 1994; 12: 1339-45.
188. Butterworth BH, Green IA, Liston WA, Haddad NG, Johnston TA. Immunocytochemical localization of neutrophil elastase in term placenta decidua and myometrium in pregnancy-induced hypertension. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1991; 98: 929-33.
189. Miller RA, Britigan BE. Protease-cleaved iron-transferrin augments oxidant-mediated endothelial cell injury via hydroxyl radical formation. J Clin Invest 1995; 95: 2491-500.
190. Greer IA, Dawes J, Johnston TA, Calder AA. Neutrophil activation is confined to the maternal circulation in pregnancy-induced hypertension. Obstet Gynecol 1991; 78: 28-32.
191. Johnston TA, Greer IA, Dawes J, Calder AA. Neutrophil activation in small for gestational age pregnancies. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1991; 98: 978-82.
192. Greer IA, Leask R, Hodson BA, Dawes J, Kilpatrick DC, Liston WA. Endothelin, elastase, and endothelial dysfunction in preeclampsia. Lancet 1991; 337: 558.
193. Tsukimori K, Maeda H, Ishida K, Nagata H, Koyanagi T, Nakano H. The superoxide generation of neutrophils in normal and preeclamptic pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 1993; 81: 536-40.
194. Uhlinger DJ, Burnham DN, Mullins RE, Kalmar JR, Cutler CW, Arnold RR et al. Functional differences in human neutrophils isolated pre- and post prandially. FEBS 191; 286: 28-32.
195. Bellinati-Pires R, Waitzberg DL, Salgado MM, Carneiro-Sampaio MM. Functional alterations of human neutrophils by medium-chain triglyceride emulsions: evaluation of phagocytosis, bacterial killing, and oxidative activity. J Leukoc Biol 1993; 53: 404-10.
196. Hoogerbrugge N, Verkerk A, Jacobs ML, Postema PTE, Jongkind JF. Hypertriglyceridemia enhances monocyte binding to endothelial cells in NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1996; 19: 1122-25.
197. Lorentzen B, Drevon CA, Endressen MJ, Henriksen T. Fatty acid pattern of esterfied and free fatty acids in sera of women with normal and pre-eclamptic pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995; 102: 530-37.
198. Gulmezoglu AM, Oosthuizen MMJ, Hofmeyer GJ. Placental malondialdehyde and glutathione levels in a controlled trial of antioxidant treatment in severe preeclampsia. Hypertens Preg 1996; 15: 287-96.
199. Wang Y, Walsh SW, Guo J, Zhang J. The imbalance between thromboxane and prostacyclin in preeclampsia is associated with an imbalance between lipid peroxides and vitamin E in maternal blood. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991; 165: 1695-700.
200. Tabacova S, Little RE, Balabaeva L, Pavlova S, Petrov I. Complications of pregnancy in relation to maternal lipid peroxides, glutathione and exposure to metals. Reprod Toxicol 1994; 8: 217-24.
201. Uotila JT, Tuimala RJ, Aarnio TM, Pyykko KA, Ahotupa MO. Findings on lipid peroxidation and antioxidant function in hypertensive complications of
202. Kauppila A, Makila UM, Korpela H, Viinikka L, Yrjanheikki E. Relationship of serum selenium and lipid peroxidation in preeclampsia. Selenium in Biology Medicine. New York: AVI Books. 1987.
203. Jendryczko A, Drozdz M, Wojcik A. Serum 18:2 (9,11) linoleic acid in normal pregnancy and pregnancy complicated by pre-eclampsia. Zent bl Gynakol 1991; 113: 443-46.
204. Jain SK, Wise R. Relationship between elevated lipid peroxides, vitamin E deficiency and hypertension in preeclampsia. Mole Cell Biochem 1995; 151: 33-38.
205. Sane AS, Chokshi SA, Mishra VV, Barad DP, Shah VC, Nagpal S. Serum lipoperoxide levels in pregnancy induced hypertension. Panminerva Med 1989; 31: 119-122.
206. Tsukatani E. Etiology of EPH-gestosis from the viewpoint of dynamics of vasoactive prostanoid, lipid peroxides and vitamin E. Acta Obstet Gynaec Jpn 1983; 35: 713-20.
207. Garzetti GG, Cugini AM, Mazzanti L, Cester N, Romanini C. Altered lipid composition, increased lipid peroxidation and altered fluidity of the membrane as evidence of platelet damage in preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1993; 81: 337-40.
208. Sotnikova LG, Naumov AV, Kuznetsova VA. The value of some parameters of erythrocyte membrane lipid peroxidation in late gestosis. Akush Ginekol 1986; 4: 20-22.
209. Wang Y, Walsh SW, Guo J, Zhang J. Maternal levels of prostacyclin, thromboxane, vitamin E and lipid peroxides throughout normal pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991; 165: 1690-94.
210. Minakami H, Kimura Z, Tamada T, Yasuda Y, Hirota N. Hepatocellular lipofuscin in pre-eclampsia. Asia-Oceania J Obstet Gynaecol 1989; 15: 277-80.
211. Retsky KL, Frei B. Vitamin C prevents metal ion-dependent initiation and propagation of lipid peroxidation in human low-density lipoprotein. Biochim Biophys Acta 1995; 1257: 279-87.
212. Frei B. Ascorbic acid protects lipids in human plasma and low-density lipoprotein against oxidative damage. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54: 1113S-18S.
213. Frei B, Stocker R, England L, Ames BN. Ascorbate: The most effective antioxidant in human blood plasma. In: Emerit I ed. Antioxidants in therapy and preventive medicine. New York: Plenum Press, 1990: 155-63.
214. Chappey B, Myara I, Benoit M-O, Maziere C, Maziere J-C, Moatti N. Characteristics of ten charge-differing subfractions isolated from human native low-density lipoproteins (LDL). No evidence of peroxidative modifications. Biochim Biophys Acta 1995; 1259: 261-70.
215. Zamburlini A, Maiorino M, Barbera P, Roberi A, Ursini F. Direct measurement by single photon counting of lipid hydroperoxides in human plasma and lipoproteins. Anal Biochem 1995; 232: 107-13.
216. Hodis HN, Kramsch DM, Avogaro P, Bittolo-Bon G, Cazzolato G, Hwang J et al. Biochemical and cytotoxic characteristics of an in vivo circulating oxidized low density lipoprotein (LDL). J Lipid Res 1994; 35: 669-77.
217. Zamburlini A, Maiorino M, Barbera P, Roberi A, Ursini F. Measurement of lipid hydroperoxides in plasma lipoproteins by a new highly-sensitive 'single photon counting' luminometer. Biochim Biophys Acta 1995; 1256: 233-40.
218. Zollner H, Schaur RJ, Esterbauer H. Biological activities of 4-Hydroxyalkenals. In: Seis H ed, Oxidative stress: oxidants and antioxidants. San Diego: Academic Press, 1991: 337-55.
219. Jansen H, Ghanem H, Kuypers JHSAM, Birkenhager JC. Autoantibodies against malondialdehyde-modified LDL are elevated in subjects with an LDL subclass pattern B. Atherosclerosis 1995; 115: 255-62.
220. Armstrong VW, Wieland E, Diedrich F, Renner A, Rath W, Kreuzer H et al. Serum antibodies to oxidised low-density lipoprotein in pre-eclampsia and coronary heart disease. Lancet 1994; 343: 1570.
221. Branch DW, Mitchell MD, Miller E, Palinski W, Witztum JL. Pre-eclampsia and serum antibodies to oxidised low-density lipoprotein. Lancet 1994; 343: 645-46.
222. Dekker GA, de Vries JI, Doelitzch PM, Huijgens PC, von Blomberg BM, Jakobs C et al. Underlying disorders associated with severe early-onset preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 173: 1042-48.
223. Allen JY, Tapia-Santiago C, Kutteh WH. Antiphospholipid antibodies in patients with preeclampsia. Am J Reprod Immunol 1996; 36: 81-85.
224. Horkko S, Miller E, Dudl E, Reaven P, Curtiss LK, Zvaifler NJ et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies are directed against epitopes of oxidized phospholipoids. J Clin Invest 1996; 98: 815-25.
225. Kurki T, Ailus T, Palosuo T, Ylikorkala O. Oxidized low-density lipoprotein, cardiolipin, and phosphatidyl serine fail to predict the risk of preeclampsia. Hypertens Preg 1996; 15: 251-56.
226. Basu TK, Schorah CJ. Cardiovascular disease. Vitamin C in Health and Disease. Westport, CT: The AVI Publishing Co., Inc., 1982: 95-100.
227. Mikhail MS, Anyaegbunam A, Garfinkel D, Palan PR, Basu J, Romney SL. Preeclampsia and antioxidant nutrients: decreased plasma levels of reduced ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol, and betacarotene in women with preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171: 150-57.
228. Hubel CA, Kagan VE, Kisin ER, McLaughlin MK, Roberts JM. Increased ascorbate radical formation and ascorbate depletion in plasma from women with preeclampsia: Implications for oxidative stress. Free Radic Biol Med 1997; In press.
229. Buettner GR, Jurkiewicz BA. Ascorbate free radical as a marker of oxidative stress: An EPR study. Free Radic Biol Med 1993; 14: 49-55.
230. Roginsky VA, Stegmann HB. Ascorbyl radical as natural indicator of oxidative stress: Quantitative regularities. Free Rad Biol Med 1994; 17: 93-103.
231. Buettner GR, Jurkiewicz BA. Chemistry and biochemistry of ascorbic acid. In: Cadenas E, Packer L eds. Handbook of antioxidants Vol. 3. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. 1996; 91-115.
232. Schiff E, Friedman SA, Stampfer M, Kao L, Barrett PH, Sibai BM. Dietary consumption and plasma concentrations of vitamin E in pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 175: 1024-28.
233. Traber MG. Determinants of plasma vitamin E concentrations. Free Rad Biol Med 1994; 16 229-39.
234. Thurnham DI, Davies JA, Crump BJ, Situnayake RD, Davis M. The use of different lipids to express serum tocopherol: lipid ratios for the measurement of vitamin E status. Ann Clin Biochem 1986; 23: 514-20.
235. Benzie IFF, Strain JJ. Uric acid: friend or foe? Redox Report 1996; 2: 231-34.
236. Samuels P, Main EK, Mennuti MT, Gabbe SG. The origin of increased serum iron in pregnancy-induced hypertension. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987; 157: 721-25.
237. Sarrel PM, Lindsay DC, Pool-Wilson PA, Collins P. Hypothesis: inhibition of endothelium-derived relaxing factor by haemoglobin in the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia. Lancet 1990; 336: 1030-32.
238. Aisen P. The binding and release of iron by transferrin. Birth defects: original article series 1976; 12: 81-95.
239. Lamb DJ, Leake DS. Iron released transferrin at acidic pH can catalyse the oxidation of low density lipoprotein. FEBS Letters 1994; 352: 15-18.
240. Lamb DJ, Mitchinson MJ, Leake DS. Transition metal ions within human atherosclerotic lesions can catalyse the oxidation of low density lipoprotein by macrophages. FEBS Letters 1995; 374: 12-16.
241. Miller RA, Rasmussen GT, Cox CD, Miller RA, Britigan BE. Protease cleavage of iron-transferrin augments pyocyanin-mediated endothelial cell injury via promotion of hydroxyl radical formation. Infect Immunol 196; 64: 182-88.
242. Walker JJ. Hypertension in pregnancy. Report of a RCOG meeting: 27 January, 1994. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1994; 101: 639-44.
243. Suhonen L, Teramo K. Hypertension and pre-eclampsia in women with gestational glucose intolerance. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1993; 72: 269-72.
244. Sibai BM, Gordon T, Thom E, Caritis SN, Klebanoff M, McNellis et al. Risk factors for preeclampsia in healthy nulliparous women: a prospective multicenter study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 172: 642-48.
245. Gratacos E, Casals E, Sanllehy C, Cararach V, Alonso PL. Variation in lipid levels during pregnancy in women with different types of hypertension. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1996; 75: 896-901.
246. Potter JM, Nestel PJ. The hyperlipidemia of pregnancy in normal and complicated pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979; 133: 165-70.
247. Endresen MJ, Lorentzen B, Henriksen T. Increased lipolytic activity and high ratio of free fatty acids to albumin in sera from women with preeclampsia leads to triglyceride accumulation in cultured endothelial cells. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992; 167: 440-47.
248. Endresen MJ, Tosti E, Heimli H, Lorentzen B, Henriksen T. Effects of free fatty acids found increased in women who develop pre-eclampsia on the ability of endothelial cells to produce prostacyclin, cGMP and inhibit platelet aggregation. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1994; 54: 549-57.
249. Arbogast BW, Leeper SC, Merrick RD, Olive KE, Taylor RN. Which plasma factors bring about disturbance of endothelial function in preeclampsia? Lancet 1994; 343: 340-41.
250. Arbogast BW, Leeper SC, Merrik RD, Olive KE, Taylor RN. Plasma factors that determine endothelial cell lipid toxicity in vitro correctly identify women with preeclampsia in early and late pregnancy. Hypertens Preg 1996; 15: 263-79.
251. Paolisso G, Gambardella A, Tagliamonte MR, Saccomanno F, Salvatore T, Gualdiero P et al. Does free fatty acid infusion impair insulin action also through an increase in oxidative stress. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81: 4244-48.
252. Toborek M, Barger W, Mattson MP, Barve S, McClain CJ, Hening B. Linoleic acid and TNF-α cross-amplify oxidative injury and dysfunction of endothelial cells. J Lipid Res 1996; 37: 123-35.
253. Reaven GM. Syndrome X: 6 years later. J Internal Med 1994; 236: 13-22.
254. Haffner SM, Mykkanen L, Robbins D, Valdez R, Miettinen H, Howard BV et al. A preponderance of small dense LDL is associated with specific insulin, proinsulin and the components of the insulin resistance syndrome in non-diabetic subjects. Diabetologia 1995; 38: 1328-36.
255. Bonora E, Targhar G, Zenere MB, Saggiani E, Cacciatori V, Tosi F et al. Relationship of uric acid concentration to cardiovascular risk factors in young men. Role of obesity and central fat distribution. The Verona young men atherosclerosis risk factors study. Int J Obes 1996; 20:975-80.
256. Hubel CA, Gandley RE, Shakir Y, Gallaher M, Roberts JM. Prevalence of small low-density lipoproteins is increased in preeclampsia. J Soc Gynecol Invest 1997; 4: 95A (Abstract).
257. Eskenazi B, Fenster L, Sidney S. A multivariate analysis of risk factors for preeclampsia. JAMA 1991; 266: 237-41.
258. Sowers JR. Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are associated with preeclampsia in African-Americans Am J Hypertens 1995; 8: 1-4.
259. Knudsen P, Eriksson J, Lahdenpera S, Kahri J, Groop L, Taskinen M-R. Changes of lipolytic enzymes cluster with insulin resistance syndrome. Diabetologia 1995; 38: 344-50.
260. Biezenski JJ. Maternal lipid metabolism. Obstet Gynecol Ann 1974; 3: 203-33.
261. Hotamisligil GS, Arner P, Cro JF, Atkinson RL, Speigelman BM. Increased adipose tissue expression of tumor necrosis factor-α in human obesity and insulin resistance. J Clin Invest 1995; 95: 2409-15.
262. Kern PA, Saghizadeh M, Ong JM, Bosch RJ, Deem R, Simsolo RB. The expression of tumor necrosis factor in human adipose tissue: regulation by obesity, weight loss, and relationship to lipoprotein lipase. J Clin Invest 1995; 95: 2111-19.
263. Krauss RM, Blanche PJ. Detection and quantitation of LDL subfractions. Current Opin Lipidol 1992; 3: 377-83.
264. McNamara JR, Campos H, Ordovas JM, Peterson JH, Wilson PWF, Schaefer E. Effect of gender, age, and lipid status on low density lipoprotein subfraction distribution. Arteriosclerosis. 1987; 7: 483-90.
265. Griffin BA. Low-density lipoprotein heterogeneity. Bailliere's Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 9: 687-703.
266. Lahdenpera S, Sane T, Vuorinen-Markkola H, Knudsen P, Taskinen M-R. LDL particle size in mildly hypertriglyceridemic subjects: no relation to insulin resistance or diabetes. Atherosclerosis 1995; 113: 227-36.
267. Austin MA. Genetic epidemiology of dyslipidaemia and atherosclerosis. Annals Med 1996; 28: 459-64.
268. Krauss RM. Heterogeneity of plasma low-density lipoproteins and atherosclerosis risk. Curr Opin Lipidol 1994; 5: 339-49.
269. Reaven GM, Chen Y-DI, Jeppesen J, Maheux P, Krauss RM. Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia in individuals with small, dense, low density lipoprotein particles. J Clin Invest 1993; 92: 141-46.
270. Gardner CD, Fortmann SP, Krauss RM. Association of small low-density lipoprotein particles with the incidence of coronary artery disease in men and women. JAMA 1996; 276: 875-81.
271. Stampfer MJ, Krauss RM, Ma J, Blanche PJ, Holl LG, Sacks FM et al. A prospective study of triclyceride level, low-density lipoprotein particle diameter, and risk of myocardial infarction. JAMA 1996; 276: 882-88.
272. Austin MA, Mykkanen L, Kuusisto J, Edwards KL, Nelson C, Haffner SM et al. Prospective study of small LDLs as a risk factor for non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus in elderly men and women. Circulation 1995; 92: 1770-78.
273. Selby JV, Austin MA, Newman B, Zhang D, Quesenberry CP Jr, Mayer EJ et al. LDL subclass phenotypes and the insulin resistance syndrome in women. Circulation 1993; 88: 381-87.
274. Raal FJ, Areias AJ, Joffe BI. Low density lipoproteins and atherosclerosis-quantity or quality? Redox Report 1995; 1: 171-74.
275. Anber R, Griffin BA, McConnell M, Packard CJ, Shepherd J. Influence of plasma lipid and LDL-subfraction profile on the interaction between low density lipoprotein with human arterial wall proteoglycans. Atherosclerosis 1996; 124: 261-71.
276. Nordestgaard BG, Nielsen LB. Atherosclerosis and arterial influx of lipoproteins. Curr Opin Lipidol 1994; 5: 252-57.
277. Tribble DL, van den Berg JJM, Motchnik PA, Ames BN, Lewis DM, Chait A et al. Oxidative susceptibility of low density lipoprotein subfractions is related to their ubiquinol-10 and α-tocopherol content. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 1183-87.
278. Tribble DL, Theil PM, vandenBerg JM, Krauss RM. Differing α-tocopherol oxidative lability and ascorbic acid sparing effects in buoyant and dense LDL. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1995; 15: 2025-31.
279. Chait A, Brazg RL, Tribble DL, Krauss RM. Susceptibility of small, dense, low-density lipoproteins to oxidative modification in subjects with the atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype, pattern B. Am J Med 1993; 94: 350-56.
280. Dejager S, Bruckert E, Chapman MJ. Dense low density lipoprotein subspecies with diminished oxidative resistance predominate in combined hyperlipidemia. J Lipid Res 1993; 34: 295-308.
281. Dimitriadis E, Griffin M, Owens D, Johnson A, Collins P, Tomkin GH. Oxidation of low-density lipoprotein in NIDDM: its relationship to fatty acid composition. Diabetologia 1995; 38: 1300-306.
282. Weisser B, Locher R, deGraff J, Moser R, Sachinidis A. Low density lipoprotein subfractions increase thromboxane formation in endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1993; 192: 1245-50.
283. i in vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ Res 1993; 73: 118-24.
284. Silliman K, Shore V, Forte TM. Hypertriglyceridemia during late pregnancy is associated with the formation of small dense low-density lipoproteins and the presence of large buoyant high-density lipoproteins. Metabolism 1994; 43: 1035-41.
285. Hubel CA, Shakir Y, Gandley RE, McLaughlin MK, Roberts JM. The hypertriglyceridemia of normal pregnancy is associated with increased formation of small low-density lipoproteins. J Soc Gynecol Invest 1997; 4: 141A (Abstract).
286. Kulkarni KR, Garber DW, Jones MK, Segrest JP. Identification and cholesterol quantification of low density lipoprotein subclasses in young adults by VAP-II methodology. J Lipid Res 1995; 36: 2291-302.
287. Williams PT, Krauss RM, Nichols AV, Vranizan KM, Wood PDS. Identifying the predominant peak diameter of high-density and low-density lipoproteins by electrophoresis. J Lipid Res 1990; 31: 1131-39.
288. Pierucci F, Garnica JJP, Cosmi EV, Anceschi MM. Oxidability of low density lipoproteins in pregnancy-induced hypertension. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996; 103: 1159-61.
289. Mondon F, Alsat E, Berthelier M, Rebourcet R, Goldstein S, Polonovski J. Presence of acetyl-like modified LDL in human placental blood. Med Sci Res 1987; 15: 385-86.
290. Alaiz M, Beppu M, Ohishi K, Kikugawa K. Modification of delipidated apoprotein B of low density lipoprotein by lipid oxidation products in relation to macrophage scavenger receptor binding. Biol Pharm Bull 1994; 17: 51-57.
291. Sambrano GR, Parthasarathy S, Steinberg D. Recognition of oxidatively damaged erythrocytes by a macrophage receptor with specificity for oxidized low density lipoprotein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 3265-69.
292. Murata M, Kodama H, Goto K, Hirano H, Tanaka T. Decreased very-low-density lipoprotein and low-density lipoprotein receptor messenger ribonucleic acid expression in placentas from preeclamptic pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 175: 1551-56.
293. Herbert V, Shaw S, Jayatilleke E, Stopler-Kasdan T. Most free-radical injury is iron-related: it is promoted by iron, hemin, holoferritin and vitamin C, and inhibited by desferoxamine and apoferritin. Stem Cells 1994; 12: 289-303.
294. Stratta A, Canavese C, Porcu M, Doglioani M, Todros D, Garbo E. Vitamin E supplementation in preeclampsia. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1994; 37: 246-49.
295. Shunsaku H, Okamoto K, Morimatsu M. Lipid peroxide in the aging process. In: Yagi K ed, Lipid peroxides in biology and medicine Orlando, Florida: Academic Press, 1982: 305-15.
296. Cutler MG, Schneider R Linoleate oxidation products and cardiovascular lesions. Atherosclerosis 1974; 20: 383-94.
297. Yoshioka T, Ichikawa L, Fogo A. Reactive oxygen metabolites cause massive, reversible proteinuria and glomecular sieving defect without apparent ultrastructural abnormality. J Am Soc Nephrol 1991; 2: 902-12.
298. Yoshioka T, Kawada K, Shimada T, Mori M. Lipid peroxidation in maternal and cord blood and protective mechanism against activated-oxygen toxicity in the blood. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979; 135: 372-76.
299. Hubel CA, Griggs KC, McLaughlin MK. Lipid peroxidation and altered vascular function in vitamin E-deficient rats. Am J Physiol 1989; 256: H1539-45.
300. Hubel CA, Davidge ST, McLaughlin MK. Lipid hydroperoxides potentiate mesenteric artery vasoconstrictor responses. Free Rad Biol Med 1993; 14: 397-407.
301. 2+- dependent retraction of vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ Res 1996; 79: 871-80.
302. Watanabe K, Okatani Y, Sagara Y. Potentiating effect of hydrogen peroxide on the serotonin-induced vasocontraction in human umbilical artery. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1996; 75: 783-89.
303. Simon BC, Cunningham LD, Cohen RA. Oxidized low density lipoproteins cause contraction and inhibit endothelium-dependent relaxation in the pig coronary artery. J Clin Invest 1990; 86: 75-79.
304. Galle J, Ochslen M, Schollmeyer P, Wanner C. Oxidized lipoproteins inhibit endothelium-dependent vasodilation. Hypertension 1994; 23: 556-64.
305. Falanga A, Doni MG, Delaini F, De Bellis Vitti G, Imberti L, Donati MB et al. Unbalanced control of TxA2 and PGI2 synthesis in vitamin E-deficient rats. Am J Physiol 1983; 245: H867-70.
306. Peters JH, Ginsberg MH, Bohl BP, Sklar LA, Cochrane CG. Intravascular release of intact cellular fibronectin during oxidant-induced injury of the in vitro perfused rabbit lung. J Clin Invest 1986; 78: 1596-603.
307. Fries DM, Penha RG, D'Amico EA, Abdalla DS, Monteiro HP. Oxidized low-density lipoprotein stimulates nitric oxide release by rabbit aortic endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 1995; 207: 231-37.
308. Hirata K, Miki N, Kuroda Y, Sakoda T, Kawashima S, Yokoyama M. Low concentration of oxidized low-density lipoprotein and lysophosphatidylcholine upregulate constitutive nitric oxide synthase mRNA expression in bovine aortic endothelial cells. Circ Res 1995; 76: 958-62.
309. Myers DE, Huang WN, Larksins RG. Lipoprotein-induced prostacyclin production in endothelial cells and effects of lipoprotein modification. Am J Physiol 1996; 271: C1504-11.
310. Wang J, Zhen E, Guo Z, Lu Y. Effect of hyperlipidemic serum on lipid peroxidation, synthesis of prostacyclin and thromboxane by cultured endothelial cells: protective effect of antioxidants. Free Radic Biol Med 1989; 7: 243-49.
311. Cunningham FG, Lowe T, Guss S, Mason R. Erythrocyte morphology in women with severe preeclampsia and eclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985; 153: 358-63.
312. Chiu D, Lubin B, Sohet SB. Peroxidative reactions in red cell biology. In: Pryor WA ed. Free Radicals in Biology. Vol 5 New York: Academic Press, 1982: 115-20.
313. Nardulli G, Proverbio F, Limongi FG, Marin R, Proverbio T. Preeclampsia and calcium adenosine triphosphate activity of red blood cell ghosts. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171: 1361-65.
314. Kagan VE. Lipid peroxidation in biomembranes Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press Inc., 1988: 55-117.