Potential Health Effects Associated with Dermal Exposure to Occupational Chemicals

Environmental Health Insights

Volumn 8, Issue s1, 2014, Pages

  Anderson, Stacey E ^a   Meade, B Jean ^a  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

chemical; dermal; occupational; toxicity

Indexed keywords

EID: 85073239642     PISSN: None     EISSN: 11786302     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4137/EHI.S15258     Document Type: Review

References (132)

1. Government Accountability Office (GAO). Report to congressional requesters: chemical regulation options exist to improve EPA's ability to assess health risks and manage its chemical review program. GAO-05-458. In: (Office. USGA, ed). 2005
2. Cashman M.W., Reutemann P.A., Ehrilich A., Contact dermatitis in the United States: epidemiology, economic impact, and workplace prevention. Dermatol Clin. 2012; 30: 87–98.
3. Mancini A.J., Kaulback K., Chamlin S.L., The socioeconomic impact of atopic dermatitis in the United States: a systematic review. Pediatriac Dermatol. 2008; 25: 1–6.
4. Northwood J.M., Sygnatur E.F., Windau J.A., Updated BLS Occupational Injury and Illness Classification System. USA: Monthly Labor Review; 2012.
5. Monteiro-Riviere N.A., Structure and function of skin. Hayes A. Wallace, John A., Thomas, Donald E., Gardner, eds. Chap. [1]. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2010: 1–18.
6. McDougal J.N., Boeniger M.F., Methods for assessing risks of dermal exposures in the workplace. Crit Rev Toxicol. 2002; 32: 291–327.
7. Bos J.D., Meinardi M.M., The 500 Dalton rule for the skin penetration of chemical compounds and drugs. Exp Dermatol. 2000; 9: 165–9.
8. Hayes B.B., Afshari A., Millecchia L., Willard P.A., Povoski S.P., Meade B.J., Evaluation of percutaneous penetration of natural rubber latex proteins. Toxicol Sci. 2000; 56: 262–70.
9. Tinkle S.S., Antonini J.M., Rich B.A.. Skin as a route of exposure and sensiti-zation in chronic beryllium disease. Environ Health Perspect. 2003; 111: 1202–8.
10. Kezic S., Nielsen J.B., Absorption of chemicals through compromised skin. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2009; 82: 677–88.
11. Trommer H., Neubert R.H., Overcoming the stratum corneum: the modulation of skin penetration. A review. Skin Pharmacol Physiol. 2006; 19: 106–21.
12. Wrbitzky R., Liver function in workers exposed to N,N-dimethylformamide during the production of synthetic textiles. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1999; 72: 19–25.
13. Korinth G., Goen T., Lakemeyer M., Broding H.C., Drexler H., Skin strain and its influence on systemic exposure to a glycol ether in offset printing workers. Contact Dermatitis. 2003; 49: 248–54.
14. Chou T.C., Shih T.S., Sheu H.M., Chang S.J., Huang C.C., Chang H.Y., The effect of personal factors on the relationship between carbon disulfide exposure and urinary 2-thiothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid levels in rayon manufacturing workers. Sci Total Environ. 2004; 322: 51–62.
15. Korinth G., Weiss T., Penkert S., Schaller K.H., Angerer J., Drexler H., Percutaneous absorption of aromatic amines in rubber industry workers: impart of impaired skin and skin barrier creams. Occup Environ Med. 2007; 64: 366–72.
16. Hino R., Nishio D., Kabashima K., Tokura Y., Percutaneous penetration via hand eczema is the major accelerating factor for systemic absorption of toluene and xylene during car spray painting. Contact Dermatitis. 2008; 58: 76–9.
17. Sithamparanadarajah R., Diseases caused by dermal exposures to chemicals. In: Evans P.G., ed. Controlling Skin Exposure to Chemicals and Wet-Work: A Practical Book. Chap. [3]. Stourbridge, UK: RMS Publishing; 2008: 15–24.
18. Kimber I., Dearman R.J., Gerberick G.F., Roggeband R., Basketter D.A., Designation of substances as skin sensitizing chemicals: a commentary. Hum Exp Toxicol. 2003; 22: 439–43.
19. Basketter D.A., Kan-King-Yu D., Dierkes P., Jowsey I.R., Does irritation potency contribute to the skin sensitization potency of contact allergens? Cutan Ocul Toxicol. 2007; 26: 279–86.
20. Caroe T.K., Ebbehoj N., Agner T., A survey of exposures related to recognized occupational contact dermatitis in Denmark in 2010. Contact Dermatitis. 2014; 70: 56–62.
21. Wakem P.W., Gapari A.A., Mechanisms of allergic and irritant contact dermatitis. In: Kydonieus A.F., Wille J.J., eds. Biochemical Modulation of Skin Reactions in Transdermal and Dermal Drug Delivery. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2000: 83–106.
22. Ma H., Insecticides: chlorinated hydrocarbons, pyrethrins and DEET. Toxicol Emergencies. 1994; 5: 1125.
23. Peiro A.M., Zapater P., Alenda C.. Hepatotoxicity related to paraquat and diquat absorption through intact skin. Dig Dis Sci. 2007; 52: 3282–4.
24. Pirson J., Toussaint P., Segers N., An unusual cause of burn injury: skin exposure to monochloroacetic acid. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2003; 24: 407–9. [Discussion 402].
25. Kaerlev L., Hansen J., Hansen H.L., Nielsen P.S., Cancer incidence among Danish seafarers: a population based cohort study. Occup Environ Med. 2005; 62: 761–5.
26. Lin C.C., Wu M.L., Yang C.C., Ger J., Tsai W.J., Deng J.F., Acute severe chromium poisoning after dermal exposure to hexavalent chromium. J Chin Med Assoc. 2009; 72: 219–21.
27. Schug T.T., Janesick A., Blumberg B., Heindel J.J., Endocrine disrupting chemicals and disease susceptibility. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2011; 127: 204–15.
28. Boeniger M.F., Ahlers H.W., Federal government regulation of occupational skin exposure in the USA. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2003; 76: 387–99.
29. Dotson G.S., Chen C.P., Gadagbui B., Maier A., Ahlers H.W., Lentz T.J., The evolution of skin notations for occupational risk assessment: a new NIOSH strategy. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2011; 61: 53–62.
30. NIOSH. Current intelligence bulletin 61: a strategy for assigning new NIOSH skin notations. DHHS, CDC, NIOSH, Cincinnati, Ohio. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2009-147. 2009. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/nioish/docs/2009-147/.
31. Lyons G., Roberts H., Palmer A., Matheson M., Nixon R., Hairdressers presenting to an occupational dermatology clinic in Melbourne, Australia. Contact Dermatitis. 2013; 68: 300–6.
32. Krecisz B., Kiec-Swierczynska M., Chomiczewska D., Dermatological screening and results of patch testing among Polish apprentice hairdressers. Contact Dermatitis. 2011; 64: 90–5.
33. Warshaw E.M., Wang M.Z., Mathias C.G.. Occupational contact dermatitis in hairdressers/cosmetologists: retrospective analysis of North American Contact Dermatitis Group data, 1994 to 2010. Dermatitis. 2012; 23: 258–68.
34. Uter W., Schnuch A., Geier J., Frosch P.J., Epidemiology of contact dermatitis. The information network of departments of dermatology (IVDK) in Germany. Eur J Dermatol. 1998; 8: 36–40.
35. Landers M.C., Law S., Storrs F.J., Permanent-wave dermatitis: contact allergy to cysteamine hydrochloride. Am J Contact Dermat. 2003; 14: 157–60.
36. Hougaard M.G., Menne T., Sosted H., Occupational eczema and asthma in a hairdresser caused by hair-bleaching products. Dermatitis. 2012; 23: 284–7.
37. Pang S., Fiume M.Z., Final report on the safety assessment of Ammonium, Potassium, and Sodium Persulfate. Int J Toxicol. 2001; 20(suppl 3): 7–21.
38. Minamoto K., Allergic contact dermatitis from two-component acrylic resin in a manicurist and a dental hygienist. J Occup Health. 2014; 56(3): 229–34.
39. Ramos L., Cabral R., Goncalo M., Allergic contact dermatitis caused by acrylates and methacrylates - a 7-year study. Contact Dermatitis. 2014; 71: 102–7.
40. Suneja T., Belsito D.V., Occupational dermatoses in health care workers evaluated for suspected allergic contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis. 2008; 58: 285–90.
41. Warshaw E.M., Schram S.E., Maibach H.I.. Occupation-related contact dermatitis in North American health care workers referred for patch testing: cross-sectional data, 1998 to 2004. Dermatitis. 2008; 19: 261–74.
42. National Occupational Exposure Survey (NOES) 1981-1983. Estimated number of employees potentially exposed to specific agents by occupation with 2-digit standard industrial classification (SIC); 1990.
43. Shaffer M.P., Belsito D.V., Allergic contact dermatitis from glutaraldehyde in health-care workers. Contact Dermatitis. 2000; 43: 150–6.
44. Sokol W.N., Nine episodes of anaphylaxis following cystoscopy caused by Cidex OPA (ortho-phthalaldehyde) high-level disinfectant in 4 patients after cystos-copy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004; 114: 392–7.
45. Franchi A., Franco G., Evidence-based decision making in an endoscopy nurse with respiratory symptoms exposed to the new ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA) disinfectant. Occupational Med (Oxford, England). 2005; 55: 575–8.
46. Suzukawa M., Komiya A., Koketsu R.. Three cases of ortho-phthalaldehyde-induced anaphylaxis after laryngoscopy: detection of specific IgE in serum. Allergol Int. 2007; 56: 313–6.
47. Fujita H., Ogawa M., Endo Y., A case of occupational bronchial asthma and contact dermatitis caused by ortho-phthalaldehyde exposure in a medical worker. J Occup Health. 2006; 48: 413–6.
48. Anderson S.E., Umbright C., Sellamuthu R.. Irritancy and allergic responses induced by topical application of ortho-phthalaldehyde. Toxicol Sci. 2010; 115: 435–43.
49. Bernstein J.A., Stauder T., Bernstein D.I., Bernstein I.L., A combined respiratory and cutaneous hypersensitivity syndrome induced by work exposure to quaternary amines. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1994; 94: 257–9.
50. Dao H, Jr, Fricker C., Nedorost S.T., Sensitization prevalence for benzalkonium chloride and benzethonium chloride. Dermatitis. 2012; 23: 162–6.
51. Manetz T.S., Meade B.J., Development of a flow cytometry assay for the identification and differentiation of chemicals with the potential to elicit irritation, IgE-mediated, or T cell-mediated hypersensitivity responses. Toxicol Sci. 1999; 48: 206–17.
52. Gerberick G.F., Cruse L.W., Ryan C.A.. Use of a B cell marker (B220) to discriminate between allergens and irritants in the local lymph node assay. Toxicol Sci. 2002; 68: 420–8.
53. Jungbauer F.H., Lensen G.J., Groothoff J.W., Coenraads P.J., Exposure of the hands to wet work in nurses. Contact Dermatitis. 2004; 50: 225–9.
54. Visscher M.O., Randall Wickett R., Hand hygiene compliance and irritant dermatitis: a juxtaposition of healthcare issues. Int J Cosmet Sci. 2012; 34: 402–15.
55. Callahan A., Baron E., Fekedulegn D.. Winter season, frequent hand washing, and irritant patch test reactions to detergents are associated with hand dermatitis in health care workers. Dermatitis. 2013; 24: 170–5.
56. Ainscough J.S., Frank Gerberick G., Dearman R.J., Kimber I., Danger, intracellular signaling, and the orchestration of dendritic cell function in skin sensitization. J Immunotoxicol. 2013; 10: 223–34.
57. Cao L.Y., Taylor J.S., Sood A., Murray D., Siegel P.D., Allergic contact dermatitis to synthetic rubber gloves: changing trends in patch test reactions to accelerators. Arch Dermatol. 2010; 146: 1001–7.
58. MacIsaac J.K., Gerona R.R., Blanc P.D.. Health care worker exposures to the antibacterial agent triclosan. J Occup Environ Med. 2014; 56: 834–9.
59. Foran C.M., Bennett E.R., Benson W.H., Developmental evaluation of a potential non-steroidal estrogen: triclosan. Mar Environ Res. 2000; 50: 153–6.
60. Gee R.H., Charles A., Taylor N., Darbre P.D., Oestrogenic and androgenic activity of triclosan in breast cancer cells. J Appl Toxicol. 2008; 28: 78–91.
61. Paul K.B., Hedge J.M., Bansal R.. Developmental triclosan exposure decreases maternal, fetal, and early neonatal thyroxine: a dynamic and kinetic evaluation of a putative mode-of-action. Toxicology. 2012; 300: 31–45.
62. Dinwiddie M.T., Terry P.D., Chen J., Recent evidence regarding triclosan and cancer risk. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2014; 11: 2209–17.
63. Philippat C., Botton J., Calafat A.M., Ye X., Charles M.A., Slama R., Prenatal exposure to phenols and growth in boys. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass). 2014; 25: 625–35.
64. Savage J.H., Matsui E.C., Wood R.A., Keet C.A., Urinary levels of triclosan and parabens are associated with aeroallergen and food sensitization. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012; 130(453-60): e457.
65. Savage J.H., Johns C.B., Hauser R., Litonjua A.A., Urinary triclosan levels and recent asthma exacerbations. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2014; 112(179-81): e172.
66. Anderson S.E., Franko J., Kashon M.L.. Exposure to triclosan augments the allergic response to ovalbumin in a mouse model of asthma. Toxicol Sci. 2013; 132: 96–106.
67. Lushniak B.D., The importance of occupational skin diseases in the United States. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2003; 76: 325–30.
68. Grube Arthur, Donaldson David, Kiely Timothy, Wu La. Biological and economic analysis division. Office of pesticide programs. Office of chemical safety and pollution prevention. Feb 2011. Washington, DC, US. Environmental Protection Agency.
69. Macfarlane E., Carey R., Keegel T., El-Zaemay S., Fritschi L., Dermal exposure associated with occupational end use of pesticides and the role of protective measures. Saf Health Work. 2013; 4: 136–41.
70. Beard J.D., Umbach D.M., Hoppin J.A.. Pesticide exposure and depression among male private pesticide applicators in the agricultural health study. EHP. Sep 2014; 122(9): 984–91.
71. Mnif W., Hassine A.I., Bouaziz A., Bartegi A., Thomas O., Roig B., Effect of endocrine disruptor pesticides: a review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2011; 8: 2265–303.
72. Dennis L.K., Lynch C.F., Sandler D.P., Alavanja M.C., Pesticide use and cutaneous melanoma in pesticide applicators in the agricultural heath study. Environ Health Perspect. 2010; 118: 812–7.
73. Alavanja M., Hofmann J., Lynch C.. 0286 occupational use of insecticides, fungicides and fumigants and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma and multiple myeloma in the agricultural health study 0286 occupational use of insecticides, fungicides and fumigants and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma and multiple myeloma in the agricultural health study. Occup Environ Med. 2014; 71(suppl 1): A36.
74. Soloukides A., Moutzouris D.A., Kassimatis T., Metaxatos G., Hadjiconstantinou V., A fatal case of paraquat poisoning following minimal dermal exposure. Ren Fail. 2007; 29: 375–7.
75. Breckenridge C.B., Stevens J.T., Crop protection chemicals: mechanism of action and hazard profile. Hayes A. Wallace, editor. In: Principals and Methods of Toxicology. Chap. [16]. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2008: 727–841.
76. Karalliedde L., Baker D., Marrs T.C., Organophosphate-induced intermediate syndrome: aetiology and relationships with myopathy. Toxicol Rev. 2006; 25: 1–14.
77. Alikhan F.S., Maibach H., Topical absorption and systemic toxicity. Cutan Ocul Toxicol. 2011; 30: 175–86.
78. Thomas K.W., Dosemeci M., Hoppin J.A.. Urinary biomarker, dermal, and air measurement results for 2,4-D and chlorpyrifos farm applicators in the agricultural health study. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2010; 20: 119–34.
79. Khan K., Ismail A.A., Abdel Rasoul G.. Longitudinal assessment of chlorpyrifos exposure and self-reported neurological symptoms in adolescent pesticide applicators. BMJ Open. 2014; 4: e004177.
80. Boostani R., Mellat A., Afshari R.. Delayed polyneuropathy in farm sprayers due to chronic low dose pesticide exposure. Ir Red Crescent Med J. 2014; 16: e5072.
81. Krishnan K., Mitra N.K., Yee L.S., Yang H.M., A comparison of neurotoxicity in cerebellum produced by dermal application of chlorpyrifos in young and adult mice. J Neural Transm. 2012; 119: 345–52.
82. Salvatore A.L., Bradman A., Castorina R.. Occupational behaviors and farmworkers’ pesticide exposure: findings from a study in Monterey County, California. Am J Indus Med. 2008; 51: 782–94.
83. Abdel-Rahman A., Dechkovskaia A.M., Goldstein L.B.. Neurological deficits induced by malathion, DEET, and permethrin, alone or in combination in adult rats. Journal of toxicology and environmental health Part A. 2004; 67: 331–56.
84. Bonner M.R., Coble J., Blair A.. Malathion exposure and the incidence of cancer in the agricultural health study. Am J Epidemiol. 2007; 166: 1023–34.
85. Gear A.J., Ahrenholz D.H., Solem L.D., Paraquat poisoning in a burn patient. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2001; 22: 347–51. [discussion 346].
86. Tanner C.M., Kamel F., Ross G.W.. Rotenone, paraquat, and Parkinson's disease. Environ Health Perspect. 2011; 119: 866–72.
87. Frasch H.F., Dotson G.S., Barbero A.M., In vitro human epidermal penetration of 1-bromopropane. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2011; 74: 1249–60.
88. Rehal B., Maibach H., Percutaneous absorption of vapors in human skin. Cutan Ocul Toxicol. 2011; 30: 87–91.
89. Dahlstrome D.L., Buckalew M., Solvents and Industrial Hygiene. Hayes A. Wallace, editor. In: Principals and methods of Toxicology. Chap. [15]. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2008: 693–727.
90. Li K., Jing Y., Yang C.. Increased leukemia-associated gene expression in benzene-exposed workers. Sci Rep. 2014; 4: 5369.
91. Koh D.H., Cheon H.K., Ryu H.W., Lee S.G., 0159 The relationship between low level benzene exposure and blood cell counts in Korean workers. Occup Environ Med. 2014; 71(suppl 1): A80.
92. Williams P.R., Sahmel J., Knutsen J., Spencer J., Bunge A.L., Dermal absorption of benzene in occupational settings: estimating flux and applications for risk assessment. Crit Rev Toxicol. 2011; 41: 111–42.
93. Bunn T.L., Liu Y., Lee K., Robertson M., Yu L., Farmer exposure to organic solvents during the maintenance and repair of farm machinery: a pilot study. Am J Ind Med. 2009; 52: 973–81.
94. Wang C., Chen S., Wang Z., Electrophysiological follow-up of patients with chronic peripheral neuropathy induced by occupational intoxication with n-hexane. Cell Biochem Biophys. 2014; 70: 579–85.
95. NIOSH. National Occupational Exposure Survey (NOES), 1981-1983: estimated total and female employees, actual observation and trade-named exposure to toluene diisocyanate and methyl benzene diamine. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. 1983. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations and Field Studies, Surveillance Branch. [Unpublished database].
96. Frick M., Isaksson M., Bjorkner B., Hindsen M., Ponten A., Bruze M., Occupational allergic contact dermatitis in a company manufacturing boards coated with isocyanate lacquer. Contact Dermatitis. 2003; 48: 255–60.
97. Militello G., Sasseville D., Ditre C., Brod B.A., Allergic contact dermatitis from isocyanates among sculptors. Dermatitis. 2004; 15: 150–3.
98. Wisnewski A.V., Xu L., Robinson E., Liu J., Redlich C.A., Herrick C.A., Immune sensitization to methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) resulting from skin exposure: albumin as a carrier protein connecting skin exposure to subsequent respiratory responses. J Occup Med Toxicol. 2011; 6: 6.
99. NIOSH. What you need to know about occupational exposure to metalworking fluids. DHHS Publication No. 98-116. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC; 1998.
100. Verma D.K., Shaw D.S., Shaw M.L., Julian J.A., McCollin S.A., des Tombe K., An evaluation of analytical methods, air sampling techniques, and airborne occupational exposure of metalworking fluids. J Occup Environ Hyg. 2006; 3: 53–66.
101. Sloyer J.L., Novitsky T.J., Nugent S., Rapid bacterial counts in metal working fluids. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 2002; 29: 323–4.
102. Frasch H.F., Zang L.Y., Barbero A.M., Anderson S.E., In vitro dermal penetration of 4-chloro-3-methylphenol from commercial metal working fluid and aqueous vehicles. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2010; 73: 1394–405.
103. Tapp L., Ewers L., Rodriguez M.. (2007) Health hazard evaluation report 2005-0227. Diamond chain company National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Indianapolis, IN.
104. Sprince N.L., Palmer J.A., Popendorf W.. Dermatitis among automobile production machine operators exposed to metal-working fluids. Am J Ind Med. 1996; 30: 421–9.
105. Mirer F.E., New evidence on the health hazards and control of metalworking fluids since completion of the OSHA advisory committee report. Am J Ind Med. 2010; 53: 792–801.
106. Anderson S.E., Brown K.K., Butterworth L.F.. Evaluation of irritancy and sensitization potential of metalworking fluid mixtures and components. J Immunotoxicol. 2009; 6: 19–29.
107. Anderson S.E., Siegel P.D., Meade B.J., The LLNA: a brief review of recent advances and limitations. J Allergy. 2011; 2011: 424203.
108. Anderson S.E., Tapp L., Durgam S., Meade B.J., Jackson L.G., Cohen D.E., The identification of a sensitizing component used in the manufacturing of an ink ribbon. J Immunotoxicol. 2012; 9: 193–200.
109. Heudorf U., Mersch-Sundermann V., Angerer J., Phthalates: toxicology and exposure. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2007; 210: 623–34.
110. Silva M.J., Barr D.B., Reidy J.A.. Urinary levels of seven phthalate metabolites in the U.S. population from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999-2000. Environ Health Perspect. 2004; 112: 331–8.
111. Koch H.M., Haller A., Weiss T., Kafferlein H.U., Stork J., Bruning T., Phthalate exposure during cold plastisol application–a human biomonitoring study. Toxicol Lett. 2012; 213: 100–6.
112. Gong M., Zhang Y., Weschler C.J., Measurement of phthalates in skin wipes: estimating exposure from dermal absorption. Environ Sci Technol. 2014; 48: 7428–35.
113. Frasch H.F., Barbero A.M., A paired comparison between human skin and hairless guinea pig skin in vitro permeability and lag time measurements for 6 industrial chemicals. Cutan Ocul Toxicol. 2009; 28: 107–13.
114. Lakind J.S., Naiman D.Q., Daily intake of bisphenol A and potential sources of exposure: 2005-2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2011; 21: 272–9.
115. Rochester J.R., Bisphenol A and human health: a review of the literature. Reproductive Toxicol (Elmsford, NY). 2013; 42: 132–55.
116. Liao C., Kannan K., Widespread occurrence of bisphenol A in paper and paper products: implications for human exposure. Environ Sci Technol. 2011; 45: 9372–9.
117. OECD. Results of survey on production and use of PFOS and PFOA, related substances and products/mixtures containing these substances. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; 2005.
118. Olsen G.W., Burris J.M., Burlew M.M., Mandel J.H., Epidemiologic assessment of worker serum perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) concentrations and medical surveillance examinations. J Occup Environ Med. 2003; 45: 260–70.
119. Melzer D., Rice N., Depledge M.H., Henley W.E., Galloway T.S., Association between serum perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and thyroid disease in the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Environ Health Perspect. 2010; 118: 686–92.
120. Knox S.S., Jackson T., Javins B., Frisbee S.J., Shankar A., Ducatman A.M., Implications of early menopause in women exposed to perfluorocarbons. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011; 96: 1747–53.
121. Vieira V.M., Hoffman K., Shin H.M., Weinberg J.M., Webster T.F., Fletcher T., Perfluorooctanoic acid exposure and cancer outcomes in a contaminated community: a geographic analysis. Environ Health Perspect. 2013; 121: 318–23.
122. Franko J., Meade B.J., Frasch H.F., Barbero A.M., Anderson S.E., Dermal penetration potential of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in human and mouse skin. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2012; 75: 50–62.
123. Steenland K., Woskie S., Cohort mortality study of workers exposed to perfluo-rooctanoic acid. Am J Epidemiol. 2012; 176: 909–17.
124. Steenland K., Zhao L., Winquist A., 0427 A cohort study of workers exposed to PFOA. Occup Environ Med. 2014; 71(suppl 1): A55.
125. Kettelarij J.A., Liden C., Axen E., Julander A., Cobalt, nickel and chromium release from dental tools and alloys. Contact Dermatitis. 2014; 70: 3–10.
126. Gawkrodger D.J., McLeod C.W., Dobson K., Nickel skin levels in different occupations and an estimate of the threshold for reacting to a single open application of nickel in nickel-allergic subjects. Br J Dermatol. 2012; 166: 82–7.
127. Henneberger P.K., Cumro D., Deubner D.D., Kent M.S., McCawley M., Kreiss K., Beryllium sensitization and disease among long-term and short-term workers in a beryllium ceramics plant. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2001; 74: 167–76.
128. Zug K.A., Warshaw E.M., Fowler JF, Jr. Patch-test results of the North American contact dermatitis group 2005-2006. Dermatitis. 2009; 20: 149–60.
129. Liden C., Skare L., Nise G., Vahter M., Deposition of nickel, chromium, and cobalt on the skin in some occupations-assessment by acid wipe sampling. Contact Dermatitis. 2008; 58: 347–54.
130. Day G.A., Stefaniak A.B., Weston A., Tinkle S.S., Beryllium exposure: dermal and immunological considerations. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2006; 79: 161–4.
131. Cummings K.J., Donat W.E., Ettensohn D.B., Roggli V.L., Ingram P., Kreiss K., Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis in workers at an indium processing facility. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2010; 181: 458–64.
132. Brock K., Anderson S.E., Lukomska E.. Immune stimulation following dermal exposure to unsintered indium tin oxide. J Immunotoxicol. 2014; 11: 268–72.