The use and fate of pesticides in vegetable-based agro-ecosystems in Ghana

The Use and Fate of Pesticides in Vegetable-Based Agro-Ecosystems in Ghana

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-113

  Ntow, William Joseph ^a  

^a NONE   (Ghana)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85057264696     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (173)

1. Bull, D. (1982) A growing problem: Pesticides and the Third World poor, OXFAM, Oxford, 192 pp.
2. Carvalho, F.P. (2006) Agriculture, pesticides, food security and food safety. Environmental Science & Policy 9:685-692.
3. Cerejeira, M.J., Viana, P., Batista, S., Pereira, T., Silva, E., Valerio, M.J., Silva, A., Ferreira, M., and Silva-Fernandes, A.M. (2003) Pesticides in Portuguese surface and ground waters. Water Research 37:1055-1063.
4. Dinham, B. (2003) Growing vegetables in developing countries for local urban populations and export markets: problems confronting small-scale producers. Pest Manag Sci 59:575-582.
5. Gerken, A., Suglo, J.V. and Braun, M. (2001) Pesticide policy in Ghana. MoFA/PPRSD, ICP Project, Pesticide Policy Project/GTZ, Accra, Ghana, 185 pp.
6. Huber, A., Bach, M., Frede, H.G. (2000) Pollution of surface waters with pesticides in Germany: modeling non-point source inputs. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 80:191-204.
7. Kidd, K.A., Bootsma, H.A. and Hesslein, R.H. (2001) Biomagnification of DDT through the benthic and pelagic food webs of Lake Malawi, East Africa: Importance of trophic level and carbon source. Environmental Science and Technology 35:14-20.
8. Ntow, W.J. (2001) Organochlorine pesticides in water, sediment, crops and human fluids in a farming community in Ghana. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 40:557-563.
9. Nurah, G.K. (1999) A baseline study of vegetable production in Ghana. National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) Report, Accra, 151 pp.
10. Planas, C., Caixach, J., Santos, F.J., and Rivera, J. (1997) Occurrence of pesticides in Spanish surface waters. Analysis by high-resolution gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Chemosphere 34:2393-2406.
11. Sattler, C., Kächele, H., and Verch, G. (2006) Assessing the intensity of pesticide use in agriculture. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment doi:10.1016/j.agee.2006.07.017.
12. Biney PM, Pesticide use pattern and insecticide residue levels in Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) in some selected production systems in Ghana. Mphil Thesis, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana, 127 pp (2001).
13. Clarke E, Levy LS, Spurgeon A and Calvert LA, The problems associated with pesticide use by irrigation workers in Ghana. Occupational Medicine 47(5): 301-308 (1997).
14. Danso G, Fialor SC and Drechsel P, Perceptions of organic agriculture by urban vegetable farmers and consumers in Ghana. Urban Agricultural Magazine 6, 23-24 (2002).
15. Dinham B, Growing vegetables in developing countries for local urban populations and export markets: problems confronting small-scale producers. Pest Manag Sci. 59: 575-582 (2003).
16. Matthews G, Wiles T and Baleguel P, A survey of pesticide application in Cameroon. Crop Protection 22; 707-714 (2003).
17. Mbakaya CFL, Ohayo-Mitoko GJA, Ngowi VAF, Mbabazi R, James M, Simwa JM, Maeda DN, Stephens J and Hakuza H, The status of pesticide usage in East Africa. African Journal of Health Sciences l (1): 37-41 (1994).
18. Medina, C.P., Pest Control Practices and pesticide perceptions of Vegetable farmers in Loo Valley, Benguet, Philippines. In: Management of Pests and Pesticides: Farmers’ Perceptions and Practices, ed by Tait J and Napompeth B, Westview Press, London, pp 150-157 (1987).
19. Mensah E, Amoah P, Abaidoo RC and Drechsel P, Environmental concerns of (peri-) urban vegetable production – Case studies from Kumasi and Accra. In: Waste Composting for Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture – Closing the rural-urban nutrient cycle in sub-Saharan Africa, ed by Drechsel P and Kunze D, IWMI/FAO/CABI: Wallingford, 55-68 (2002).
20. Metcalf RL, Changing role of insecticides in crop protection. Ann. Rev. Ent. 25(22): 119-256 (1980).
21. Ntow WJ, Pesticide misuse at Akumadan to be tackled. NARP Newsletter, 3(3): 3 (1998).
22. Ntow WJ, Organochlorine Pesticides in Water, Sediment, Crops and Human fluids in a farming community in Ghana. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 40(4): 557-563 (2001).
23. Racke KD, Skidmore MW, Hamilton DJ, Unsworth JB, Miyamoto J and Cohen SZ, Pesticide fate in tropical soils. Pure & Appl. Chem., 69(6): 1349-1371 (1997).
24. Thomas MR, Pesticide usage in some vegetable crops in Great Britain: real on-farm applications. Pest Manag Sci 59: 591-596 (2003).
25. Tukahirwa EM, Pest Control Practices and pesticide perceptions of vegetable farmers in Loo Valley, Benguet, Philippines. In: Management of Pests and Pesticides: Farmers’ Perceptions and Practices, ed by Tait J and Napompeth B, Westview Press, London, pp 182-190 (1987).
26. Warburton H., Palis FG and Pingali PL, Farmer perceptions, Knowledge and pesticide use practices. In: Impact of pesticides on farmer health and the rice environment, ed by Pingali PL and Roger PA, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Massachusetts, 59-95 (1995).
27. Aguilera-del real, A.; Valverde-García, A.; Fernandez-Alba, A.R.; Camacho-Ferre, F. Behaviour of endosulfan residues in peppers, cucumbers and cherry tomatoes grown in Greenhouse: Evaluation by decline curves. Pestic. Sci. 1997, 51, 194-200.
28. Amoah, P.; Drechsel, P.; Abaidoo, R.C.; Ntow, W.J. Pesticide and Pathogen contamination of vegetables in Ghana’s urban markets. Arch. Environ. Contam.Toxicol. 2006, 50, 1-6.
29. Antonious, G.F.; Byers, M.E. Fate and movement of endosulfan under field conditions. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 1997, 16, 644-649.
30. Antonious, G.F.; Byers, M.E.; Snyder, J.C. Residues and fate of endosulfan on field-grown pepper and tomato. Pestic. Sci. 1998, 54, 61-67.
31. Beard, J.E.; Ware, G.W. Fate of endosulfan on plants and glass. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1969, 17, 216-220.
32. Chopra, N.M.; Mahfouz, A.M. Metabolism of endosulfan I, endosulfan II, and endosulfan sulfate in tobacco leaf. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1977, 25, 32-36.
33. Day, P.R. Particle fractionation and particle-size analysis. In Methods of soil analysis; Black, C.A., Ed.; American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI, 1965, 545-567.
34. Donker, M.H.; Eijsackers, H.; Heimbach, F. Ecotoxicology of soil organisms. SETAC Special Publication series 1994, chapter 14.
35. EXTOXNET. Extension Toxicology Network: Pesticides Information Profiles. Avaialble from URL: http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/ghindex.html. Accessed 16 February 2007.
36. FAO/IAEA Organochlorine insecticides in African agroecosystems. FAO, Geneva, 1997, 93-230.
37. Farmer, W.J.; Igue, K.; Spencer, W.F.; Martin, J.P. Volatility of organochlorine insecticides from soil: Effects of concentration, temperature, air flow rates and vapour pressure. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 1972, 36, 443-447.
38. st World Cotton Res. Conf., CSIRO, Canberra, Australia, 1994, 583-588.
39. Goebel, H.; Gorbach, S.G.; Knauf, W.; Rimpau, R.H.; Huttenbach, H. Properties, effects, residues, and analytics of the insecticide endosulfan. Residue Rev., 1982, 83, 1-165.
40. Gonzalez, M.; Miglioranza, K.S.B.; Aizpún de Moreno, J.E.; Moreno, V.J. Occurrence and distribution of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) crops from organic production. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 1353-1359.
41. Guerin, F.G.; Kennedy, I.V. Distribution and dissipation of endosulfan and related cyclodienes in sterile aqueous systems: Implications for studies on biodegradation. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1992, 40, 2315-2323.
42. Jackson, M.L. Soil chemical analysis. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1958.
43. Jantunen, L.M.M.; Bidleman, T.F. Organochlorine pesticides and enantiomers of chiral pesticides in Artic Ocean water. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1998, 35, 218-228.
44. Kathpal, T.S.; Singh, A.; Dhankhar, J.S.; Singh, G. Fate of endosulfan in cotton soil under subtropical conditions of Northern India. Pestic. Sci. 1997, 50, 21-27.
45. Kennedy, I.R.; Sánchez-Bayo, F.; Kimber, S.W.; Hugo, L.; Ahmad, N. Off-site movement of endosulfan from irrigated cotton in New South Wales. J. Environ. Qual. 2001, 30, 683-696.
46. Kimber, S.W.L.; Coleman, S.; Coldwell, R.L.; Kennedy, I.R. The environmental fate of endosulfan sprayed on cotton. Eighth Internat. Cong. Pest. Chem (IUPAC), Washington, DC, USA, 4-9 July, Vol. 1, Abstract No. 234, 1994, p.263.
47. Maier-Bode, H. Properties, effect, residues and analytics of the insecticide endosulfan.
48. 14C in soil under different conditions. Bull.
49. Miles, J.R.W.; Moy, P. Degradation of endosulfan and its metabolites by a mixed culture of soil microorganisms. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1979, 23, 013-019.
50. Morrica, P.; Fidente, P.; Seccia, S.; Ventriglia, M. Degradation of imazosulfuron in different soils-HPLC determination. Biomed. Chromatogr. 2002, 16, 489-494.
51. Ntow, W.J. Organochlorine Pesticides in Water, Sediment, Crops and Human fluids in a farming community in Ghana. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 2001, 40, 557-563.
52. Ntow, W.J. Pesticide residues in Volta Lake, Ghana. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research and Management 2005, 10, 243-248.
53. Ntow, W.J.; Gijzen, H.J.; Kelderman, P.; Drechsel, P. Farmer perceptions and pesticide use practices in vegetable production in Ghana. Pest Manag. Sci. 2006, 62, 356-365.
54. Osafo, S.; Frimpong, E. Lindane and endosulfan residues in water and fish in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. J. Ghana Sci. Assoc. 1998, 1, 135-140.
55. Raha, P.; Banejee, H.; Das, A.K.; Adityachaudhury, N. Persistence Kinetics of Endosulfan, Fenvalerate, and Decamethrin in and on Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 1993, 41, 923-928.
56. Roger, P.A.; Bhuiyan, S.I. Behavior of pesticides in rice-based agroecosystems: A review. In Impact of pesticides on farmer health and the rice environment; Pingali, P.L. and Roger, P.A. Eds.; Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, USA, 1995, 111-148.
57. Schuphan, I.; Ballschmiter, K.; Tolg, G. Zum metabolismus des endosulfans in ratten and mausen. Z. Naturforsch. B 1968, 23, 701-706.
58. Sethunathan, N.; Megharaj, M.; Chen, Z.; Singh, N.; Kookana, R.S.; Naidu, R. Persistence of endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate in soil as affected by moisture regime and organic matter addition. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2002, 68, 725-731.
59. Shetty, P.K.; Mitra, J.; Murthy, N.B.K.; Namitha, K.K.; Savitha, K.N.; Raghu, K. Biodegradation of cyclodiene insecticide endosulfan by Mucor thermohyalospora MTCC 1384. Curr. Sci. 2000, 79, 1381-1383.
60. Simonich, S.L.; Hites, R.A. Global distribution of persistent organochlorine compounds. Science 1995, 269, 1851-1854.
61. Singh, P.P.; Battu, R.S.; Singh, B.; Kalra, R.L. Fate and interconversion of endosulfan I, II and sulfate on gram crop (Cicer arietinum Linn.) in subtropical environment. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1991, 47, 711-716.
62. Spencer, W.F.; Farmer, W.J.; Claith, M.M. Pesticide volatilisation. Residue Rev. 1973. 49, 1-47.
63. Stewart, D.K.R.; Cairns, K.G. Endosulfan persistence in soil and uptake by potato tubers. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1974, 22, 984-986.
64. U.S.Department of Health and Human Services. Toxicological profile for endosulfan. Agency for toxic substance and disease registry, Atlanta. 1990.
65. Antonious, G.F., M.E. Byers, and J.C. Snyder. 1998. Residues and fate of endosulfan on field-grown pepper and tomato. Pestic. Sci. 54:61-67.
66. Castillo, L.E., E. De la Cruz and C. Ruepert. 1997. Ecotoxicology and pesticides in tropical aquatic ecosystems of Central America. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 16:41-51.
67. Castillo, L.E., E. Martínez, C. Ruepert, C. Savage, M. Gilek, M. Pinnock, and E.Solis. 2006. Water quality and macroinvertebrate community response following pesticide applications in a banana plantation, Limon, Costa Rica. Science of the Total Environment 367:418-432.
68. Cooper, C.M. 1993. Biological effects of agriculturally derived surface-water pollutants on aquatic systems-a review. J. Environ. Qual. 22:402-408.
69. Dabrowski, J.M., S.K.C. Peall, A.J. Reinecke, M. Liess, and R. Schulz. 2002a. Runoff-related pesticide input into the Lourens River, South Africa: Basic data for exposure assessment and risk mitigation at the catchment scale. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 135:265-283.
70. Dabrowski, J.M., S.K.C. Peall, A.V. Niekerk, A.J. Reinecke, J.A. Day, and R. Schulz. 2002b. Predicting runoff-induced pesticide input in agricultural sub-catchment surface water: linking catchment variables and contamination. Water Res. 36:4975-4984.
71. DeLorenzo, M.E., G.I. Scott, and P.E. Ross. 1999. Effects of the agricultural pesticides atrazine, deethylatrazine, endosulfan, and chlorpyrifos on an estuarine microbial food web. Environ. Toxicol. Chem.18:2824-2835.
72. DeLorenzo, M.E., G.I. Scott, and P.E. Ross. 2001. Toxicity of pesticides to aquatic microorganisms: A review. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 20:84-98.
73. EXTOXNET. 2006. Extension Toxicology Network: Pesticides Information Profiles. Available from URL: http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/ghindex.html. Accessed 17 November 2006.
74. Gerken, A., J.V. Suglo, and M. Braun. 2001. Pesticide policy in Ghana. MoFA/PPRSD, ICP Project, Pesticide Policy Project/GTZ, Accra.
75. Guerin, F.G. and I.V. Kennedy. 1992. Distribution and dissipation of endosulfan and related cyclodienes in sterile aqueous systems: Implications for studies on biodegradation. J. Agric. Food Chem. 40:2315-2323.
76. Kathpal, T.S., A. Singh, J.S. Dhankhar, and G. Singh. 1997. Fate of endosulfan in cotton soil under subtropical conditions of Northern India. Pestic. Sci. 50:21-27.
77. Kimber, S.W.L., S. Coleman, R.L. Coldwell, and I.R. Kennedy. 1994. The environmental fate of endosulfan sprayed on cotton. Eighth Internat. Cong. Pest. Chem (IUPAC), Washington, DC, USA, 4-9 July, Vol. 1, Abstract No. 234, p.263.
78. Kreuger, J. 1998. Pesticides in stream water within an agricultural catchment in Southern Sweden, 1990-1996. The Science of the Total Environment 216:227-251.
79. McDonald, C., S.J. Jebellie, C.A. Madramootoo, and G.T. Dodds. 1999. Pesticide mobility on a hillside soil in St. Lucia. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 72:181-188.
80. Nakano, Y., A. Miyazaki, T. Yoshida, K. Ono, and T. Inoue. 2004. A study on pesticide runoff from paddy fields to a river in rural region-1: field survey of pesticide runoff in the Kozakura River, Japan. Water Res. 38:3017-3022.
81. Neumann, M. and Dudgeon D. 2002. The impact of agricultural runoff on stream benthos in Hong Kong, China. Water Res. 36:3103-3109.
82. Ntow, W.J. 2001. Organochlorine pesticides in water, sediment, crops and human fluids in a farming community in Ghana. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 40:557-563.
83. Ntow, W.J., H.J. Gijzen, P. Kelderman, and P. Drechsel. 2006. Farmer perceptions and pesticide use practices in vegetable production in Ghana. Pest. Manag. Sci. 62:356-365.
84. Nurah, G.K. 1999. A baseline study of vegetable production in Ghana. National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) Report, Accra.
85. Osafo, S. and E. Frimpong. 1998. Lindane and endosulfan residues in water and fish in the Ashanti region of Ghana. J. Ghana Sci. Assoc. 1:135-140.
86. Readman, J.W., L. Liong Wee Kwong, L.D. Mee, J. Bartocii, G. Nilve, J.A. Rodríguez-Solano, and F. González-Farias. 1992. Persistent organophosphorus pesticides in tropical marine environments. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 24:398-402.
87. Rovedatti, M.G., P.M. Castañé, M.L. Topalián, and A. Salibián. 2001. Monitoring of organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticides in the water of the Reconquista River (Buenos Aires, Argentina). Water Res. 35:3457-3461.
88. Schulz, R. 2001. Rainfall-induced sediment and pesticide input from orchards into the Lourens River, Western Cape, South Africa: Importance of a single event. Water Res. 35:1869-1876.
89. Schulz, R., M. Hauschild, M. Ebeling, J. Nanko-Drees, J. Wogram, and M. Liess. 1998. A qualitative field method for monitoring pesticides in the edge-of-field runoff. Chemosphere 36:3071-3082.
90. Schulz, R., S.K.C. Peall, J.M. Dabrowski, and A.J. Reinecke. 2001. Spray deposition of two insecticides into surface waters in a South African orchard area. J. Environ. Qual. 30:814-822.
91. Wauchope, R.D. 1978. The pesticide content of surface water draining from agricultural fields-a review. J. Environ. Qual. 7:459-472.
92. Werner, I., L.A. Deanovic, V. Connor, V. DeVlaming, H.C. Bailey, and D.E. Hinton. 2000. Insecticide-caused toxicity to Ceriodaphnia dubia (Cladocera) in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta, California, USA. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 19:215-227.
93. Antle JM, Pingali PL (1995) Pesticides, productivity, and farmer health: A Philippine case study. In: P.L. Pingali and P.A. Roger (eds.). Impact of pesticides on farmer health and the rice environment. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Massachusetts, pp 361-387.
94. Barnes JM (1999) Problems in monitoring overexposure among spray workers in fruit orchards chronically exposed to diluted organophosphate pesticides. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 72(Suppl 3):M68-M74.
95. Clarke E, Levy LS, Spurgeon A, Calvert LA (1997) The problems associated with pesticide use by irrigation workers in Ghana. Occup Med 47: 301-308.
96. Coye M, Barnett PG, Midttling JE (1986) Clinical confirmation of organophosphate poisoning of agricultural workers. Am. J. Ind. Med. 10:399-409.
97. Ellman GL, Courtney KD, Andres Jr V, Featherstone RM (1961) A new and rapid colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity. Biochemical Pharmacology 7:88-95.
98. Farahat TM, Abdelrasoul GM, Amr MM, Shebl MM, Farahat FM, Anger WK (2003). Neurobehavioural effects among workers occupationally exposed to organophosphorus pesticides. Occup. Environ. Med. 60:279-286. doi:10.1136/oem.60.4.279 (Online 14 November 2005).
99. Fenske RA, Lu C, Curl CL, Shirai JH, Kissel JC (2005) Biologic Monitoring to Characterise Organophosphorus Pesticide Exposure among Children and Workers: An Analysis of Recent Studies in Washington State. Environ Health Perspect 113(11):1651-1657.
100. He F (1993) Biological monitoring of occupational pesticides exposure. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 65:S69-S76.
101. Hogg RV, Tanis EA (1997) Probability and statistical inference, 5th ed. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
102. Nielsen JB, Andersen HR (2002) Cholinesterase Activity in Female Greenhouse Workers – Influence of Work Practices and Use of Oral Contraceptives. J Occup Health 44:234-239.
103. Ntow WJ (2001) Organochlorine Pesticides in Water, Sediment, Crops and Human fluids in a farming community in Ghana. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 40(4):557-563.
104. Ntow WJ, Gijzen HJ, Kelderman P, Drechsel P (2006) Farmer perceptions and pesticide use practices in vegetable production in Ghana. Pest Manag Sci, 62:356-365.
105. Nurah GK (1999) A baseline study of vegetable production in Ghana. National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) Report, Accra.
106. Ohayo-Mitoko GJA, Kromhout H, Simwa JM, Boleij JSM, Heederik D (2000) Self reported symptoms and inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity among Kenyan agricultural workers. Occup. Environ. Med. 57:195-200. doi:10.1136/oem.57.3.195 (Online 14 November 2005).
107. Quinones MA, Bogden JD, Louria DB, Nakah AE (1976) Depressed cholinesterase activities among farm workers in New Jersey. The Science of the Total Environment 6:155-159.
108. Rama DBK, Jaga K (1992) Pesticide exposure and cholinesterase levels among farm workers in the Republic of South Africa. The Science of the Total Environment 122:315-319.
109. Wadsworth Jr. HM (1990) Handbook of Statistical Methods for Engineers and Scientists. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York
110. WHO Study Group (1982) Recommended health-based limits in occupational exposure to pesticides. Technical Report Series 677, World Health Organization, Geneva.
111. WHO Task Group (1986a) Environmental Health Criteria 63. Organophosphorus Insecticides: A General Introduction, World Health Organization, Geneva.
112. WHO Task Group (1986b) Environmental Health Criteria 64. Carbamate Pesticides: A General Introduction, World Health Organization, Geneva.
113. Yassin MM, Abu Mourad TA, Safi JM (2002) Knowledge, attitude, practice, and toxicity symptoms associated with pesticide use among farm workers in the Gaza Strip. Occup Environ Med 59:387-393.
114. Amoah, P., Drechsel, P., Abaidoo, R.C., Ntow, W.J., 2006. Pesticide and Pathogen Contamination of vegetables in Ghana’s Urban Markets. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 50,1-6.
115. Carreño, J., Rivas, A., Granada, A., Lopez-Espinosa, M.J., Mariscal, M., Olea, N., Olea-Serrano, F., 2006. Exposure of young men to organochlorine pesticides in Southern Spain. Environmental Research doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2006.06.007.
116. Cerrilo, I., Granada, A., López-Espinosa, M.-J., Olmos, B., Jiménez, M., Caño, A., Olea, N., Olea-Serrano, M.F., 2005. Endosulfan and its metabolites in fertile women, placenta, cord blood, and human milk. Environ. Res. 98, 233-239.
117. Cruz, S., Lino, C., Silveira, M.I., 2003. Evaluation of organochlorine pesticide residues in human serum from an urban and two rural populations in Portugal. Sci. Total Environ. 317, 23-35.
118. Hogg, R.V., Tanis, E.A., 1997. Probability and statistical inference, 5th ed. New Jersey: rentice-Hall.
119. Jaraczewska, K., Lulek, J., Covaci, A., Voorspoels, S., Kaluba-Skotarczak, A., Drews, K., Schepens, P., 2006. Distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls, organochlorine pesticides and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in human umbilical cord serum, maternal serum and milk from Wielkopolska region, Poland. Sci.Total Environ. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.03.030.
120. Kanja, L.W., Skaare, J.U., Ojwang, S.B.O., Maitai, C.K., 1992. A comparison of organochlorine pesticide residues in maternal adipose tissue, maternal blood, cord blood, and human milk from mother/infant pairs. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 22, 21-24
121. Keice, W.R., Stone, C.R., Laws, S.C., Gray, L.E., Kempainen, I.A., Wilson, E.M., 1995. Persistent DDT metabolite p, p’-DDE is a potent androgen receptor antagonist. Nature 375, 581-585.
122. Kunisue, T., Someya, M., Monirith, I., Watanabe, M., Tana, T.S., Tanabe, S., 2004a. Occurrence of PCBs, Organochlorine Insecticides, tris(4-Chlorophenyl)methane, and tris(4-Chlorophenyl)methanol in Human Breast Milk Collected from Cambodia. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 46, 405-412.
123. Kunisue, T., Someya, M., Kayama, F., Jin, Y., Tanabe, S., 2004b. Persistent organochlorines in human breast milk collected from primiparae in Dalian and Shenyang, China. Environ. Pollut. 131, 381-392.
124. Lino, C.M., Azzolini, C.B.F., Nunes, D.S.V., Silva, J.M.R., Silveira, M.I.N., 1998. Methods for the determination of organochlorine pesticide residues in human serum. J. Chromatogr. Sec. B 716, 147-152.
125. Lino, C.M., da Silveira, M.I.N., 2006. Evaluation of organochlorine pesticides in serum from students in Coimbra, Portugal: 1997-2001. Environ. Res. 102, 339-351.
126. Minh, N.H., Someya, M., Minh, T.B., Kunisue, T., Iwata, H., Watanabe, M., Tanabe, S., Viet, P.H., Tuyen, B.C., 2004. Persistent organochlorine residues in human breast milk from Hanoi and Hochiminh city, Vietnam: contamination, accumulation kinetics and risk assessment for infants. Environ. Pollut. 129, 431-441.
127. Muñoz-de-Toro, M., Beldoménico, H.R., Garcia, S.R., Stoker, C., De Jesús, J.J., Beldoménico, P.M., Ramos, J.G., Luque, E.H., 2006. Organochlorine levels in adipose tissue of women from a littoral region of Argentina. Environmental Research 102, 107-112.
128. Ntow, W.J., 2001. Organochlorine pesticides in water, sediment, crops and human fluids in a farming community in Ghana. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 40, 557-563.
129. Ntow, W.J., 2005. Pesticide Residues in Volta Lake, Ghana. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research and Management 10 (4), 243-248.
130. Ntow, W.J., Gijzen, H.J., Kelderman, P., Drechsel, P., 2006. Farmer perceptions and pesticide use practices in vegetable production in Ghana. Pest. Manag. Sci. 62 (4), 356-365.
131. Oostdam, J.V., Gilman, A., Dewailly, E., Usher, P., Wheatley, B., Kuhnlein, H., 1999. Human health implications of environmental contaminants in Arctic Canada: a review. Sci. Total Environ. 230, 1-82.
132. Pauwels, A., Covaci, A., Weyler, J., Delbeke, L., Dhont, M., De Sutter, P., D’Hooghe, T., Schepens, P.J.C., 2000. Comparison of Persistent Organic Pollutant Residues in Serum and Adipose Tissue in a Female Population in Belgium, 1996-1998. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 39, 265-270.
133. Poon, B.H.T., Leung, C.K.M., Wong, C.K.C., Wong, M.H., 2005. Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Organochlorine Pesticides in Human Adipose Tissue and Breast Milk Collected in Hong Kong. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 49, 274-282.
134. Skaare, J.U., Tuveng, J.M., Sande, H.A., 1988. Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in maternal adipose tissue, blood, milk and cord blood from mothers and their infants living in Norway. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 17, 55-63.
135. Sudaryanto, A., Kunisue, T., Kajiwara, N., Iwata, H., Adibroto, T.A., Hartono, P., Tanabe, S., 2005. Specific accumulation of organochlorines in human breast milk from Indonesia: Levels, distribution, accumulation kinetics and infant health risk. Environ. Pollut. (doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2005.04.028).
136. Sun, S.-J., Zhao, J.-H., Koga, M., Ma, Y.-X., Liu, D.-W., Nakamura, M., Liu, H.-J., Horiguchi, H., Clark, G.C., Kayama, F., 2005. Persistent organic pollutants in human milk in women from urban and rural areas in northern China. Environ. Res. 99, 285-293.
137. Travis, C.C., Hattermer-Frey, H.A., Arma, A.D., 1988. Relationship between dietary intake of organic chemicals and their concentrations in human adipose tissue and breast milk. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 17, 473-478.
138. Wadsworth Jr., H.M., 1990. Handbook of Statistical Methods for Engineers and Scientists. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York
139. Waliszewski, S.M., Aguirre, A.A., Infanzon, R.M., Silva, C.S., Siliceo, J., 2001. Organochlorine Pesticide Levels in Maternal Adipose Tissue, Maternal Blood Serum, Unbilical Blood Serum, and Milk from Inhabitants of Veracruz, Mexico. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 40, 432-438.
140. Weisenberg, E., Arad, I., Grauer, F., Sahm, Z., 1985. Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Organochlorine Insecticides in Human Milk in Israel. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 14, 517-521.
141. Willett, K.L., Ulrich, E.M., Hites, R.A., 1998. Differential toxicity environmental fates of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32, 2197-2207.
142. Aguilera-del Real A, Valverde-García A, Fernandez-Alba AR, Camacho-Ferre F (1997) Behaviour of endosulfan residues in peppers, cucumbers and cherry tomatoes grown in Greenhouse: Evaluation by decline curves. Pestic Sci 51:194-200
143. Amador M, Silva LC, Valdés-Lazo FSO (1994) Breast-feeding trends in Cuba and the Americas. Bull Pan Am Health Organ 28(3):220-228
144. Amoah P, Drechsel P, Abaidoo RC, Ntow WJ (2006) Pesticide and Pathogen Contamination of vegetables in Ghana’s Urban Markets. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 50:1-6
145. Antonious GF, Byers ME, Snyder JC (1998) Residues and fate of endosulfan on field-grown pepper and tomato. Pestic Sci 54:61-67
146. Arnold R, Kibler R, Brunner B (1998) Alimentary intake of selected pollutants and nitrate-results of a duplicate study in Bavarian homes for youth and elderly people. Z Ernahrungswissenschaft 37:328-335.
147. Battu RS, Singh B, Kang BK, Joia BS (2005) Risk assessment through dietary intake of total diet contaminated with pesticide residues in Punjab, India, 1999-2002. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 62:132-139
148. Bull D (1982) A growing problem: Pesticides and the Third World poor, OXFAM, Oxford, 192 pp
149. Carreño J, Rivas A, Granada A, Lopez-Espinosa MJ, Mariscal M, Olea N, Olea-Serrano F (2006) Exposure of young men to organochlorine pesticides in Southern Spain. Environmental Research doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2006.06.007.
150. Danso G, Drechsel P, Fialor SC (2002) Perception of organic agriculture by urban vegetable farmers and consumers in Ghana. Urban Agric Mag 6:23-24
151. Dinham B (2003) Growing vegetables in developing countries for local urban populations and export markets: problems confronting small-scale producers. Pest Manag Sci 59:575-582
152. Dougherty CP, Holtz, SH, Reinert JC, Panyacosit L, Axelrad DA, Woodruff TJ (2000) Dietary Exposures to Food Contaminants across the United States. Environmental Research Section A 84:170-185
153. Ferrer I, García-Reyes JF, Mezcua M, Thurman EM, Fernández-Alba AR (2005) Multi-residue pesticide analysis in fruits and vegetables by liquid chromatography-time-of– flight mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A 1082:81-90
154. Gerken A, Suglo JV, Braun M (2001) Pesticide policy in Ghana. MoFA/PPRSD, ICP Project, Pesticide Policy Project/GTZ, Accra, 2001, pp 185
155. Gold LS, Stern BR, Slone TH, Brown JP, Manley NB, Ames BN (1997) Pesticides residues in food: investigation of disparities in cancer risk estimates. Cancer Lett 195-207
156. Gonzalez M, Miglioranza KSB, Aizpún de Moreno JE, Moreno VJ (2003) Occurrence and distribution of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) crops from organic production. J Agric Food Chem 51:1353-1359
157. Gunderson EL 1995 Dietary intake of pesticides, selected elements and other chemicals: FDA total diet study, June 1984-April 1986. JAOAC Int 78:910-921
158. Hsu R-C, Biggs I, Saini NK (1991) Solid-Phase Extraction Cleanup of Halogenated Organic Pesticides. J Agr Food Chem 39:1658-66
159. Hura C, Leanca M, Rusu L, Hura BA (1999) Risk assessment of pollution with pesticides in food in the Eastern Romania area (1996-1997). Toxicology Letters 107:103-107
160. Jiang Q, Hanari N, Miyake Y, Okazawa T, Lau RKF, Chen K, Wyrzykowska B, So MK, Yamashita N, Lam PKS (2006) Health risk assessment for polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, and polychlorinated naphthalenes in seafood from Guangzhou and Zhoushan, China. Environmental Pollution doi: 10, 1016/j.envpol.2006.11.002,1-9
161. Kroes R, Müller D, Lambe J, Löwik MRH, van Klaveren J, Kleiner J, Massey R, Mayer S, Urieta I, Verger P, Visconti A (2002) Assessment of intake from the diet. Food and Chemical Toxicology 40:327-385
162. MacIntosh DL, Spengler JD, Ozkaynak H, Tsai L, Ryan PB (1996) Dietary exposures to selected metals and pesticides. Environ Health Perspect 104:202-209
163. Miglioranza KSB, Aizpún de Moreno JE, Moreno VJ, Osterrieth ML, Escalante AH (1999) Fate of organochlorine pesticides in soils and terrestrial biota of “Los Padres” pond watershed, Argentina. Environ Pollut 105:91-99
164. Muntean N, Jermini M, Small I, Falzon D, Fürst P, Migliorati G, Scortichini G, Forti AF, Anklam E, von Holst C, Niyazmatov B, Bahkridinov S, Aertgeerts R, Bertollini R, Tirado C, Kolb A (2003) Assessment of Dietary Exposure to Some Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Republic of Karakalpakstan of Uzbekistan. Environ Health Perspect 111(10):1306-1311
165. Ntow WJ (2001) Organochlorine pesticides in water, sediment, crops, and human fluids in a farming community in Ghana. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 40:557-563
166. Ntow WJ (2005) Pesticide residues in Volta Lake, Ghana. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research and Management 10:243-248
167. Ntow WJ, Gijzen HJ, Kelderman P, Drechsel P (2006) Farmer perceptions and pesticide use practices in vegetable production in Ghana. Pest Manag Sci 62(4):356-365
168. Perez-Escamilla R (1993) Breast-feeding patterns in nine Latin American and Caribbean countries. Bull Pan Am Health Organ 27(1):32-42
169. Raha P, Banerjee H, Das AK, Adtyachaudhury N (1993) Persistence kinetics of endosulfan, fenvalerate, and decamethrin in and on eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). J Agric Food Chem 41:923-928
170. Raschke AM, Burger AEC (1997) Risk assessment as a management tool used to assess the effect of pesticide use in an irrigation system, situated in a Semi-Desert Region. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 32:42-49
171. Trapp S, Mc Farlane C, Matthies M (1994) Model for uptake of xenobiotic into plants: validation with bromacil experiments. Environ Toxicol Chem 13:413-422
172. USEPA (1989) Exposure factors handbook. Exposure assessment group. Office of Health and Environmental Assessment. U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
173. Willett KL, Ulrich EM, Hites RA (1998) Differential Toxicity and Environmental Fates of Hexachlorocyclohexane Isomers. Environ Sci Technol 32(15):2197-2207.