Comparison of microalgal biomasses as functional food ingredients: Focus on the composition of cell wall related polysaccharides

Algal Research

Volumn 32, Issue , 2018, Pages 150-161

  Bernaerts, Tom M M ^a   Gheysen, Lore ^a   Kyomugasho, Clare ^a   Jamsazzadeh Kermani, Zahra ^a   Vandionant, Stéphanie ^a   Foubert, Imogen ^a   Hendrickx, Marc E ^a   Van Loey, Ann M ^a  

^a LEUVEN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION RESEARCH CENTRE LFORCE   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Biomass composition; Cell wall polysaccharides; Exopolysaccharides; Monosaccharide; Sulfate; Uronic acid

Indexed keywords

EID: 85044948839     PISSN: 22119264     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2018.03.017     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. Batista, A.P., Gouveia, L., Bandarra, N.M., Franco, J.M., Raymundo, A., Comparison of microalgal biomass profiles as novel functional ingredient for food products. Algal Res. 2 (2013), 164–173, 10.1016/j.algal.2013.01.004.
2. Buono, S., Langellotti, A.L., Martello, A., Rinna, F., Fogliano, V., Functional ingredients from microalgae. Food Funct. 5 (2014), 1669–1685, 10.1039/C4FO00125G.
3. Tokusoglu, M.K., Unal, Ö., Biomass nutrient profiles of three microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris and Isochrysis galbana. J. Food Sci. 68 (2003), 1144–1148, 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb09615.x.
4. Hu, Q., Environmental effects on cell composition. Handb. Microalgal Cult. Biotechnol. Appl. Phycol, 2004, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 83–93.
5. Lourenço, S.O., Barbarino, E., Lavín, P.L., Lanfer Marquez, U.M., Aidar, E., Distribution of intracellular nitrogen in marine microalgae: calculation of new nitrogen-to-protein conversion factors. Eur. J. Phycol. 39 (2004), 17–32, 10.1080/0967026032000157156.
6. González López, C.V., García, M. del C. Cerón, Acién Fernández, F.G., Bustos, C.S., Chisti, Y., Sevilla, J.M.F., Protein measurements of microalgal and cyanobacterial biomass. Bioresour. Technol. 101 (2010), 7587–7591, 10.1016/j.biortech.2010.04.077.
7. Baudelet, P.-H., Ricochon, G., Linder, M., Muniglia, L., A new insight into cell walls of chlorophyta. Algal Res. 25 (2017), 333–371, 10.1016/j.algal.2017.04.008.
8. Becker, W., Microalgae in human and animal nutrition. Handb. Microalgal Cult. Biotechnol. Appl. Phycol, 2004, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 312–351.
9. Günerken, E., D'Hondt, E., Eppink, M.H.M., Garcia-Gonzalez, L., Elst, K., Wijffels, R.H., Cell disruption for microalgae biorefineries. Biotechnol. Adv. 33 (2015), 243–260, 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.01.008.
10. Sierra, L.S., Dixon, C.K., Wilken, L.R., Enzymatic cell disruption of the microalgae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii for lipid and protein extraction. Algal Res. 25 (2017), 149–159, 10.1016/j.algal.2017.04.004.
11. Gerken, H.G., Donohoe, B., Knoshaug, E.P., Enzymatic cell wall degradation of Chlorella vulgaris and other microalgae for biofuels production. Planta 237 (2013), 239–253, 10.1007/s00425-012-1765-0.
12. de Jesus Raposo, M.F., de Morais, A.M.M.B., de Morais, R.M.S.C., Bioactivity and applications of polysaccharides from marine microalgae. Polysaccharides, 2015, Springer, 1683–1727, 10.1007/978-3-319-16298-0.
13. Arad, S., Levy-Ontman, O., Red microalgal cell-wall polysaccharides: biotechnological aspects. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 21 (2010), 358–364, 10.1016/j.copbio.2010.02.008.
14. Delattre, C., Pierre, G., Laroche, C., Michaud, P., Production, extraction and characterization of microalgal and cyanobacterial exopolysaccharides. Biotechnol. Adv. 34 (2016), 1159–1179, 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2016.08.001.
15. Henderson, R.K., Baker, A., Parsons, S.A., Jefferson, B., Characterisation of algogenic organic matter extracted from cyanobacteria, green algae and diatoms. Water Res. 42 (2008), 3435–3445, 10.1016/j.watres.2007.10.032.
16. Raven, J.A., Beardall, J., Carbohydrate metabolism and respiration in algae. Photosynth. Algae, 14th ed., 2003, Springer, 205–224, 10.1007/978-94-007-1038-2_10.
17. Templeton, D.W., Quinn, M., Van Wychen, S., Hyman, D., Laurens, L.M.L., Separation and quantification of microalgal carbohydrates. J. Chromatogr. A 1270 (2012), 225–234, 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.10.034.
18. de Souza, M.F., Santos Pereira, D., Pereira Freitas, S., da Silva Bon, E.P., Almenara Rodrigues, M., Neutral sugars determination in Chlorella: use of a one-step dilute sulfuric acid hydrolysis with reduced sample size followed by HPAEC analysis. Algal Res. 24 ((2017), 130–137, 10.1016/j.algal.2017.03.019.
19. Becker, B., Lommerse, J.P.M., Melkonian, M., Kamerling, J.P., Vliegenhart, J.F.G., The structure of an acidic trisaccharide component from a cell wall polysaccharide preparation of the green alga Tetraselmis striata Butcher. Carbohydr. Res. 267 (1995), 313–321, 10.1016/0008-6215(94)00300-5.
20. Sun, Y., Wang, H., Guo, G., Pu, Y., Yan, B., The isolation and antioxidant activity of polysaccharides from the marine microalgae Isochrysis galbana. Carbohydr. Polym. 113 (2014), 22–31, 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.06.058.
21. Borowitzka, M.A., Beardall, J., Raven, J.A., The Physiology of Microalgae. 2016, Springer.
22. Nguyen, H.H., Shpigelman, A., Van Buggenhout, S., Moelants, K., Haest, H., Buysschaert, O., Hendrickx, M., Van Loey, A., The evolution of quality characteristics of mango piece after pasteurization and during shelf life in a mango juice drink. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 242 (2016), 703–712, 10.1007/s00217-015-2578-8.
23. Ryckebosch, E., Muylaert, K., Foubert, I., Optimization of an analytical procedure for extraction of lipids from microalgae. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 89 (2012), 189–198, 10.1007/s11746-011-1903-z.
24. Brányiková I., Maršálková B., Doucha, J., Brányik, T., Bišová K., Zachleder, V., Vítová M., Microalgae - novel highly efficient starch producers. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 108 (2011), 766–776, 10.1002/bit.23016.
25. Yao, C., Ai, J., Cao, X., Xue, S., Zhang, W., Enhancing starch production of a marine green microalga Tetraselmis subcordiformis through nutrient limitation. Bioresour. Technol. 118 (2012), 438–444, 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.05.030.
26. Qu, L., Ren, L.J., Li, J., Sun, G.N., Sun, L.N., Ji, X.J., Nie, Z.K., Huang, H., Biomass composition, lipid characterization, and metabolic profile analysis of the fed-batch fermentation process of two different docosahexanoic acid producing Schizochytrium sp. strains. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 171 (2013), 1865–1876, 10.1007/s12010-013-0456-z.
27. Brody, M., Vatter, A.E., Observations on cellular structures of Porphyridium cruentum. J. Biophys. Biochem. Cytol. 5 (1959), 289–294, 10.1083/jcb.5.2.289.
28. De Philippis, R., Sili, C., Vincenzini, M., Glycogen and poly-β-hydroxybutyrate synthesis in Spirulina maxima. J. Gen. Microbiol. 138 (1992), 1623–1628, 10.1099/00221287-138-8-1623.
29. Pleissner, D., Eriksen, N.T., Effects of phosphorous, nitrogen, and carbon limitation on biomass composition in batch and continuous flow cultures of the heterotrophic dinoflagellate Crypthecodinium cohnii. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 109 (2012), 2005–2016, 10.1002/bit.24470.
30. McCleary, B.V., Solah, V., Gibson, T.S., Quantitative measurement of total starch in cereal flours and products. J. Cereal Sci. 20 (1994), 51–58, 10.1006/jcrs.1994.1044.
31. Granum, E., Myklestad, S.M., A simple combined method for determination of β-1,3-glucan and cell wall polysaccharides in diatoms. Hydrobiologia 477 (2002), 155–161, 10.1023/A:1021077407766.
32. Dubois, M.K., Gilles, K.A., Hamilton, J.K., Rebers, P.A., Smith, F., Colorimetric method for determination of sugars and related substances. Anal. Chem. 28 (1956), 350–356, 10.1021/ac60111a017.
33. Hanlon, A.R.M., Bellinger, B., Haynes, K., Xiao, G., Hofmann, T.A., Gretz, M.R., Ball, A.S., Osborn, A.M., Underwood, G.J.C., Dynamics of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) production and loss in an estuarine, diatom-dominated, microalgal biofilm over a tidal emersion-immersion period. Limnol. Oceanogr. 51 (2006), 79–93, 10.4319/lo.2006.51.1.0079.
34. Patel, A.K., Laroche, C., Marcati, A., Ursu, A.V., Jubeau, S., Marchal, L., Petit, E., Djelveh, G., Michaud, P., Separation and fractionation of exopolysaccharide from Porphyridium cruentum. Bioresour. Technol. 145 (2013), 345–350, 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.12.038.
35. McFeeters, R.F., Armstrong, S.A., Measurement of pectin methylation in plant cell walls. Anal. Biochem. 139 (1984), 212–217, 10.1016/0003-2697(84)90407-X.
36. Kermanshahi-pour, A., Sommer, T.J., Anastas, P.T., Zimmerman, J.B., Enzymatic and acid hydrolysis of Tetraselmis suecica for polysaccharide characterization. Bioresour. Technol. 173 (2014), 415–421, 10.1016/j.biortech.2014.09.048.
37. Cheng, Y.-S., Zheng, Y., Labavitch, J.M., VanderGheynst, J.S., The impact of cell wall carbohydrate composition on the chitosan flocculation of Chlorella. Process Biochem. 46 (2011), 1927–1933, 10.1016/j.procbio.2011.06.021.
38. Ryckebosch, E., Bruneel, C., Termote-Verhalle, R., Lemahieu, C., Muylaert, K., Van Durme, J., Goiris, K., Foubert, I., Stability of omega-3 LC-PUFA-rich photoautotrophic microalgal oils compared to commercially available omega-3 LC-PUFA oils. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61 (2013), 10145–10155, 10.1021/jf402296s.
39. Ryckebosch, E., Bruneel, C., Termote-Verhalle, R., Muylaert, K., Foubert, I., Influence of extraction solvent system on extractability of lipid components from different microalgae species. Algal Res. 3 (2014), 36–43, 10.1016/j.algal.2013.11.001.
40. Milke, L.M., Bricelj, V.M., Ross, N.W., Changes in enzymatic activity during early development of bay scallops argopecten irradians and sea scallops Pacopecten magellanicus. Aquat. Biol. 14 (2011), 207–216, 10.3354/ab00398.
41. Sila, D.N., Van Buggenhout, S., Duvetter, T., Fraeye, I., De Roeck, A., Van Loey, A., Hendrickx, M., Pectins in processed fruits and vegetables: part II-structure-function relationships. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 8 (2009), 86–104, 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2009.00071.x.
42. De Ruiter, G., Schols, H.A., Voragen, A.G.J., Rombouts, F.M., Carbohydrate analysis of water-soluble uronic acid containing polysaccharides with high-performance anion-exchange chromatography using methanolysis combined with TFA hydrolysis is superior to four other methods. Anal. Biochem. 207 (1992), 176–185, 10.1016/0003-2697(92)90520-H.
43. Jamsazzadeh Kermani, Z., Shpigelman, A., Kyomugasho, C., Van Buggenhout, S., Ramezani, M., Van Loey, A.M., Hendrickx, M.E., The impact of extraction with a chelating agent under acidic conditions on the cell wall polymers of mango peel. Food Chem. 161 (2014), 199–207, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.03.131.
44. Dodgson, K.S., Price, R.G., A note on the determination of the ester sulphate content of sulphated polysaccharides. Biochem. J. 84 (1962), 106–110.
45. Gouveia, L., Oliveira, A.C., Microalgae as a raw material for biofuels production. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 36 (2009), 269–274, 10.1007/s10295-008-0495-6.
46. Ogbonda, K.H., Aminigo, R.E., Abu, G.O., Influence of temperature and pH on biomass production and protein biosynthesis in a putative Spirulina sp. Bioresour. Technol. 98 (2007), 2207–2211, 10.1016/j.biortech.2006.08.028.
47. Ördög, V., Stirk, W.A., Bálint, P., Aremu, A.O., Okem, A., Lovász, C., Molnár, Z., van Staden, J., Effect of temperature and nitrogen concentration on lipid productivity and fatty acid composition in three Chlorella strains. Algal Res. 16 (2016), 141–149, 10.1016/j.algal.2016.03.001.
48. Ryckebosch, E., Bruneel, C., Termote-Verhalle, R., Goiris, K., Muylaert, K., Foubert, I., Nutritional evaluation of microalgae oils rich in omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids as an alternative for fish oil. Food Chem. 160 (2014), 393–400, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.03.087.
49. Morita, E., Kumon, Y., Nakahara, T., Kagiwada, S., Noguchi, T., Docosahexaenoic acid production and lipid-body formation in Schizochytrium limacinum SR21. Mar. Biotechnol. 8 (2006), 319–327, 10.1007/s10126-005-5060-y.
50. Wang, G., Wang, T., Characterization of lipid components in two microalgae for biofuel application. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 89 (2012), 135–143, 10.1007/s11746-011-1879-8.
51. Chen, W., Zhou, P., Zhang, M., Zhu, Y., Wang, X., Luo, X., Bao, Z., Yu, L., Transcriptome analysis reveals that up-regulation of the fatty acid synthase gene promotes the accumulation of docosahexaenoic acid in Schizochytrium sp. S056 when glycerol is used. Algal Res. 15 (2016), 83–92, 10.1016/j.algal.2016.02.007.
52. Liang, Y., Sarkany, N., Cui, Y., Yesuf, J., Trushenski, J., Blackburn, J.W., Use of sweet sorghum juice for lipid production by Schizochytrium limacinum SR21. Bioresour. Technol. 101 (2010), 3623–3627, 10.1016/j.biortech.2009.12.087.
53. Guihéneuf, F., Fouqueray, M., Mimouni, V., Ulmann, L., Jacquette, B., Tremblin, G., Effect of UV stress on the fatty acid and lipid class composition in two marine microalgae Pavlova lutheri (Pavlovophyceae) and Odontella aurita (Bacillariophyceae). J. Appl. Phycol. 22 (2010), 629–638, 10.1007/s10811-010-9503-0.
54. Becker, E.W., Micro-algae as a source of protein. Biotechnol. Adv. 25 (2007), 207–210, 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2006.11.002.
55. Safi, C., Ursu, A.V., Laroche, C., Zebib, B., Merah, O., Pontalier, P.-Y., Vaca-Garcia, C., Aqueous extraction of proteins from microalgae: effect of different cell disruption methods. Algal Res. 3 (2014), 61–65, 10.1016/j.algal.2013.12.004.
56. Fernández-Reiriz, M.J., Perez-Camacho, A., Ferreiro, M.J., Blanco, J., Planas, M., Campos, M.J., Labarta, U., Biomass production and variation in the biochemical profile (total protein, carbohydrates, RNA, lipids and fatty acids) of seven species of marine microalgae. Aquaculture 83 (1989), 17–37, 10.1016/0044-8486(89)90057-4.
57. Xia, S., Gao, B., Li, A., Xiong, J., Ao, Z., Zhang, C., Preliminary characterization, antioxidant properties and production of chrysolaminarin from marine diatom Odontella aurita. Mar. Drugs. 12 (2014), 4883–4897, 10.3390/md12094883.
58. Rebolloso-Fuentes, M.M., Navarro-Pérez, A., García-Camacho, F., Ramos-Miras, J.J., Guil-Guerrero, J.L., Biomass nutrient profiles of the microalga Nannochloropsis. J. Agric. Food Chem. 49 (2001), 2966–2972, 10.1021/jf0010376.
59. Arad, S., Friedman, O., Rotem, A., Effect of nitrogen on polysaccharide production in a Porphyridium sp. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54 (1988), 2411–2414 (doi:102411-04$02.00/0).
60. Zhu, B.-H., Shi, H.-P., Yang, G.-P., Lv, N.-N., Yang, M., Pan, K.-H., Silencing UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase gene in Phaeodactylum tricornutum affects carbon allocation. New Biotechnol., 2015, 6–13 Article in https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbt.2015.06.003.
61. Myklestad, S.M., Production, chemical structure, metabolism, and biological function of the (1 → 3)-linked, β3-D-glucans in diatoms. Biol. Oceanogr. 6 (1989), 313–326, 10.1080/01965581.1988.10749534.
62. Bernaerts, T.M.M., Panozzo, A., Doumen, V., Foubert, I., Gheysen, L., Goiris, K., Moldenaers, P., Hendrickx, M.E., Van Loey, A.M., Microalgal biomass as a (multi)functional ingredient in food products: rheological properties of microalgal suspensions as affected by mechanical and thermal processing. Algal Res. 25 (2017), 452–463, 10.1016/j.algal.2017.05.014.
63. Gloaguen, V., Ruiz, G., Morvan, H., Mouradi-Givernaud, A., Maes, E., Krausz, P., Strecker, G., The extracellular polysaccharide of Porphyridium sp.: an NMR study of lithium-resistant oligosaccharidic fragments. Carbohydr. Res. 339 (2004), 97–103, 10.1016/j.carres.2003.09.020.
64. Trabelsi, L., M'sakni, N.H., Ben Ouada, H., Bacha, H., Roudesli, S., Partial characterization of extracellular polysaccharides produced by cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis. Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng. 14 (2009), 27–31, 10.1007/s12257-008-0102-8.
65. Filali Mouhim, R., Cornet, J.-F., Fontane, T., Fournet, B., Dubertret, G., Production, isolation and preliminary characterization of the exopolysaccharide of the cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis. Biotechnol. Lett. 15 (1993), 567–572, 10.1007/BF00138541.
66. Morineau-Thomas, O., Jaouen, P., Legentilhomme, P., The role of exopolysaccharides in fouling phenomenon during ultrafiltration of microalgae (Chlorella sp. and Porphyridium purpureum): advantage of a swirling decaying flow. Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng. 25 (2002), 35–42, 10.1007/s00449-001-0278-1.
67. Xiao, R., Zheng, Y., Overview of microalgal extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and their applications. Biotechnol. Adv. 34 (2016), 1225–1244, 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2016.08.004.
68. Guzman-Murillo, M.A., Ascencio, F., Anti-adhesive activity of sulphated exopolysaccharides of microalgae on attachment of red sore disease-associated bacteria and Helicobacter pylori to tissue culture cells. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 30 (2000), 473–478, 10.1046/j.1472-765x.2000.00751.x.
69. Desbois, A.P., Walton, M., Smith, V.J., Differential antibacterial activities of fusiform and oval morphotypes of Phaeodactylum tricornutum (Bacillariophyceae). J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. United Kingdom 90 (2010), 769–774, 10.1017/S0025315409991366.
70. Chang, K.J.L., Nichols, C.M., Blackburn, S.I., Dunstan, G.A., Koutoulis, A., Nichols, P.D., Comparison of thraustochytrids Aurantiochytrium sp., Schizochytrium sp., Thraustochytrium sp., and Ulkenia sp. for production of biodiesel, long-chain omega-3 oils, and exopolysaccharide. Mar. Biotechnol. 16 (2014), 396–411, 10.1007/s10126-014-9560-5.
71. Scholz, M.J., Weiss, T.L., Jinkerson, R.E., Jing, J., Roth, R., Goodenough, U., Posewitz, M.C., Gerken, H.G., Ultrastructure and composition of the Nannochloropsis gaditana cell wall. Eukaryot. Cell 13 (2014), 1450–1464, 10.1128/EC.00183-14.
72. Gelin, F., Volkman, J.K., Largeau, C., Derenne, S., Sinninghe Damsté J.S., De Leeuw, J.W., Distribution of aliphatic, nonhydrolyzable biopolymers in marine microalgae. Org. Geochem. 30 (1999), 147–159, 10.1016/S0146-6380(98)00206-X.
73. Francius, G., Tesson, B., Dague, E., Martin-Jézéquel, V., Dufrêne, Y.F., Nanostructure and nanomechanics of live Phaeodactylum tricornutum morphotypes. Environ. Microbiol. 10 (2008), 1344–1356, 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2007.01551.x.
74. Pales Espinosa, E., Perrigault, M., Ward, J.E., Shumway, S.E., Allam, B., Microalgal cell surface carbohydrates as recognition sites for particle sorting in suspension-feeding bivalves. Biol. Bull. 218 (2010), 75–86, 10.1086/BBLv218n1p75.
75. Zhu, C.J., Lee, Y.K., Determination of biomass dry weight of marine microalgae. J. Appl. Phycol. 9 (1997), 189–194, 10.1023/A:1007914806640.
76. Johnson, M.B., Wen, Z., Production of biodiesel fuel from the microalga Schizochytrium limacinum by direct transesterification of algal biomass. Energy Fuel 23 (2009), 5179–5183, 10.1021/ef900704h.
77. Sun, L., Ren, L., Zhuang, X., Ji, X., Yan, J., Huang, H., Differential effects of nutrient limitations on biochemical constituents and docosahexaenoic acid production of Schizochytrium sp. Bioresour. Technol. 159 (2014), 199–206, 10.1016/j.biortech.2014.02.106.
78. Faeth, J.L., Valdez, P.J., Savage, P.E., Fast hydrothermal liquefaction of Nannochloropsis sp. to produce biocrude. Energy Fuel 27 (2013), 1391–1398, 10.1021/ef301925d.
79. Camara, F., Amaro, M.A., Barbera, R., Clemente, G., Bioaccessibility of minerals in school meals: comparison between dialysis and solubility methods. Food Chem. 92 (2005), 481–489, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.08.009.
80. Rebolloso-Fuentes, M.M., Navarro-Pérez, A., Ramos-Miras, J.J., Guil-Guerrero, J.L., Biomass nutrient profiles of the microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum. J. Food Biochem. 25 (2001), 57–76, 10.1111/j.1745-4514.2001.tb00724.x.
81. Aburto, N.J., Ziolkovska, A., Hooper, L., Elliott, P., Cappuccio, F.P., Meerpohl, J.J., Effect of lower sodium intake on health: systematic review and meta-analyses. Br. Med. J., 346, 2013, f1326, 10.1136/bmj.f1326.
82. Cheng, Y.S., Labavitch, J.M., VanderGheynst, J.S., Elevated CO2 concentration impacts cell wall polysaccharide composition of green microalgae of the genus Chlorella. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 60 (2015), 1–7, 10.1111/lam.12320.
83. Geresh, S., Arad, S., Levy-Ontman, O., Zhang, W., Tekoah, Y., Glaser, R., Isolation and characterization of poly- and oligosaccharides from the red microalga Porphyridium sp. Carbohydr. Res. 344 (2009), 343–349, 10.1016/j.carres.2008.11.012.
84. Geresh, S., Adin, I., Yarmolinsky, E., Karpasas, M., Characterization of the extracellular polysaccharide of Porphyridium sp.: molecular weight determination and rheological properties. Carbohydr. Polym. 50 (2002), 183–189, 10.1016/S0144-8617(02)00019-X.
85. Geresh, S., Arad, S., The extracellular polysaccharides of the red microalgae: chemistry and rheology. Bioresour. Technol. 38 (1991), 195–201, 10.1016/0960-8524(91)90154-C.
86. Loos, E., Meindl, D., Composition of the cell wall of Chlorella fusca. Planta 156 (1982), 270–273, 10.1007/BF00393735.
87. Shi, Y., Sheng, J., Yang, F., Hu, Q., Purification and identification of polysaccharide derived from Chlorella pyrenoidosa. Food Chem. 103 (2007), 101–105, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.07.028.
88. Blumreisinger, M., Meindl, D., Loos, E., Cell wall composition of chlorococcal algae. Phytochemistry 22 (1983), 1603–1604, 10.1016/0031-9422(83)80096-X.
89. Chen, C., Zhao, X., Yen, H., Ho, S., Cheng, C., Lee, D.-J., Bai, F.-W., Chang, J.-S., Microalgae-based carbohydrates for biofuel production. Biochem. Eng. J. 78 (2013), 1–10, 10.1016/j.bej.2013.03.006.
90. Gille, A., Trautmann, A., Posten, C., Briviba, K., Gille, A., Trautmann, A., Posten, C., Briviba, K., Bioaccessibility of carotenoids from Chlorella vulgaris and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 67 (2017), 507–513, 10.1080/09637486.2016.1181158.
91. Kapaun, E., Loos, E., Reisser, W., Cell wall composition of virus-sensitive symbiotic Chlorella species. Phytochemistry 31 (1992), 3103–3104, 10.1016/0031-9422(92)83453-6.
92. Pieper, S., Unterieser, I., Mann, F., Mischnick, P., A new arabinomannan from the cell wall of the chlorococcal algae Chlorella vulgaris. Carbohydr. Res. 352 (2012), 166–176, 10.1016/j.carres.2012.02.007.
93. Guzmán, S., Gato, A., Lamela, M., Freire-Garabal, M., Calleja, J.M., Anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities of polysaccharide from Chlorella stigmatophora and Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Phyther. Res. 17 (2003), 665–670, 10.1002/ptr.1227.
94. Kaplan, D., Christiaen, D., Arad, S.M., Chelating properties of extracellular polysaccharides from Chlorella spp. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 53 (1987), 2953–2956.
95. Whyte, J.N.C., Biochemical composition and energy content of six species of phytoplankton used in mariculture of bivalves. Aquaculture 60 (1987), 231–241, 10.1016/0044-8486(87)90290-0.
96. Schwenzfeier, A., Wierenga, P.A., Gruppen, H., Isolation and characterization of soluble protein from the green microalgae Tetraselmis sp. Bioresour. Technol. 102 (2011), 9121–9127, 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.07.046.
97. Brown, M.R., The amino-acid and sugar composition of 16 species of microalgae used in mariculture. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 145 (1991), 79–99, 10.1016/0022-0981(91)90007-J.
98. Arora, M., Anil, A.C., Delany, J., Rajarajan, N., Emami, K., Mesbahi, E., Carbohydrate degrading bacteria closely associated with Tetraselmis indica: influence on algal growth. Aquat. Biol. 15 (2012), 61–71, 10.3354/ab00402.
99. Becker, B., Melkonian, M., Kamerling, J.P., The cell wall (Theca) of Tetraselmis striata (Chlorophyta): macromolecular composition and structural elements of the complex polysaccharides. J. Phycol. 34 (1998), 779–787, 10.1046/j.1529-8817.1998.340779.x.
100. Ford, C.W., Percival, E., Carbohydrates of Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Part II.* A sulphated glucuronomannan. J. Chem. Soc., 1965, 7042–7046.
101. Le Costaouëc, T., Unamunzaga, C., Mantecon, L., Helbert, W., New structural insights into the cell-wall polysaccharide of the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Algal Res. 26 (2017), 172–179, 10.1016/j.algal.2017.07.021.
102. Baba Hamed, S., Baba Hamed, M.B., Kassouar, S., Abi Ayad, S.-M.E.-A., Physicochemical analysis of cellulose from microalgae Nannochloropsis gaditana. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 15 (2016), 1201–1207, 10.5897/AJB2016.15321.
103. Bahnweg, G., Jäckle, I., A new approach to taxonomy of the thraustochytriales and labyrinthulales. Biol. Mar. Fungi, 1986, Cambridge University Press, 131–140.
104. Darley, W.M., Porter, D., Fuller, M.S., Cell wall composition and synthesis via golgi-directed scale formation in the marine eucaryote, Schizochytrium aggregatum, with a note on Thraustochytrium sp. Arch. Microbiol. 90 (1973), 89–106, 10.1007/BF00414512.
105. Arnold, A.A., Genard, B., Zito, F., Tremblay, R., Warschawski, D.E., Marcotte, I., Identification of lipid and saccharide constituents of whole microalgal cells by 13C solid-state NMR. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1848 (2015), 369–377, 10.1016/j.bbamem.2014.07.017.
106. Bertocchi, C., Navarini, L., Cesàro, A., Polysaccharides from cyanobacteria. Carbohydr. Polym. 12 (1990), 127–153, 10.1016/0144-8617(90)90015-K.
107. Lee, J.-B., Hayashi, T., Hayashi, K., Sankawa, U., Maeda, M., Nemoto, T., Nakanishi, H., Further purification and structural analysis of calcium spirulan from Spirulina platensis. J. Nat. Prod. 61 (1998), 1101–1104, 10.1021/np980143n.