Immunological and toxicological risk assessment of e-cigarettes

European Respiratory Review

Volumn 27, Issue 147, 2018, Pages

  Kaur, Gagandeep ^a   Pinkston, Rakeysha ^a   McLemore, Benathel ^a   Dorsey, Waneene C ^b   Batra, Sanjay ^a  

^a SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b GRAMBLING STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COTININE; GLYCEROL; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; JANUS KINASE; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; NICOTINE; PROPYLENE GLYCOL; STAT PROTEIN; TOBACCO SMOKE; AUTACOID; NICOTINIC AGENT;

AEROSOL; AIR QUALITY; ASTHMA; CHEMICAL ANALYSIS; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; DEVICE SAFETY; ELECTRONIC CIGARETTE; EXPOSURE; HEALTH HAZARD; HUMAN; IMMUNOREGULATION; IMMUNOTOXICITY; INDOOR AIR POLLUTION; INFLAMMATION; INNATE IMMUNITY; NONHUMAN; PASSIVE SMOKING; PROTEIN ANALYSIS; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SMOKING CESSATION; SMOKING REGULATION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TOXICITY TESTING; VAPING; ANIMAL; CHEMICALLY INDUCED; DRUG EFFECT; IMMUNE SYSTEM; IMMUNOLOGY; INHALATIONAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; LUNG; LUNG DISEASE; METABOLISM; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRODUCT SAFETY; RISK ASSESSMENT;

ADMINISTRATION, INHALATION; AEROSOLS; ANIMALS; CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY; ELECTRONIC NICOTINE DELIVERY SYSTEMS; HUMANS; IMMUNE SYSTEM; INFLAMMATION; INFLAMMATION MEDIATORS; LUNG; LUNG DISEASES; NICOTINE; NICOTINIC AGONISTS; RISK ASSESSMENT; VAPING;

EID: 85044121738     PISSN: 09059180     EISSN: 16000617     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1183/16000617.0119-2017     Document Type: Review

References (104)

1. Crotty Alexander L, Fuster M, Montgrain P, et al. The need for more e-cigarette data: a call to action. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015; 192: 275–276.
2. Fewer Smokers Believe E-cigarettes Are a Safer Alternative to Cigarettes. www.elsevier.com/about/press-releases/research-and-journals/fewer-smokers-believe-e-cigarettes-are-a-safer-alternative-to-cigarettes Date last updated: May 15, 2014.
3. Mincer J. E-cigarette Usage Surges in Past Year: Reuters/Ipsos Poll. www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-ecigarette-poll-analysis-idUSKBN0OQ0CA20150610 Date last updated: June 10, 2015.
4. Carey C, Wang B, Johnson SE, et al. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Notes From the Field: Electronic Cigarette Use Among Middle and High School Students – United States, 2011–2012. MMWR; 62: 729–730.
5. Hua M, Alfi M, Talbot P. Health-related effects reported by electronic cigarette users in online forums. J Med Internet Res 2013; 15: e59.
6. Rusznak C, Sapsford RJ, Devalia JL, et al. Interaction of cigarette smoke and house dust mite allergens on inflammatory mediator release from primary cultures of human bronchial epithelial cells. Clin Exp Allergy 2001; 31: 226–238.
7. Kode A, Yang SR, Rahman I. Differential effects of cigarette smoke on oxidative stress and proinflammatory cytokine release in primary human airway epithelial cells and in a variety of transformed alveolar epithelial cells. Respir Res 2006; 7: 132.
8. Comer DM, Elborn JS, Ennis M. Inflammatory and cytotoxic effects of acrolein, nicotine, acetylaldehyde and cigarette smoke extract on human nasal epithelial cells. BMC Pulm Med 2014; 14: 32.
9. Blake GH, Abell TD, Stanley WG. Cigarette smoking and upper respiratory infection among recruits in basic combat training. Ann Intern Med 1988; 109: 198–202.
10. US Food and Drug Administration. Summary of Results: Laboratory Analysis of Electronic Cigarettes Conducted by FDA. www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/ucm173146.htm Date last accessed: Dec 3, 2016. Date last updated: April 22, 2014.
11. Bertholon JF, Becquemin MH, Roy M, et al. Comparaison de l'aérosol de la cigarette électronique à celui des cigarettes ordinaires et de la chicha. [Comparison of the aerosol produced by electronic cigarettes with conventional cigarettes and the shisha]. Rev Mal Respir 2013; 30: 752–757.
12. Bhatnagar A, Whitsel LP, Ribisl KM, et al. Electronic cigarettes: a policy statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2014; 130: 1418–1436.
13. Kaisar MA, Prasad S, Liles T, et al. A decade of e-cigarettes: limited research and unresolved safety concerns. Toxicology 2016; 365: 67–75.
14. Trtchounian A, Williams M, Talbot P. Conventional and electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) have different smoking characteristics. Nicotine Tob Res 2010; 12: 905–912.
15. Williams M, Talbot P. Variability among electronic cigarettes in the pressure drop, airflow rate, and aerosol production. Nicotine Tob Res 2011; 13: 1276–1283.
16. Flouris AD, Chorti MS, Poulianiti KP, et al. Acute impact of active and passive electronic cigarette smoking on serum cotinine and lung function. Inhal Toxicol 2013; 25: 91–101.
17. Farsalinos KE, Spyrou A, Tsimopoulou K, et al. Nicotine absorption from electronic cigarette use: comparison between first and new-generation devices. Sci Rep 2014; 4: 4133.
18. Schroeder MJ, Hoffman AC. Electronic cigarettes and nicotine clinical pharmacology. Tob Control 2014; 23: Suppl. 2, ii30–ii35.
19. Foulds J, Veldheer S, Yingst J, et al. Development of a questionnaire for assessing dependence on electronic cigarettes among a large sample of ex-smoking E-cigarette users. Nicotine Tob Res 2015; 17: 186–192.
20. Kosmider L, Sobczak A, Fik M, et al. Carbonyl compounds in electronic cigarette vapors: effects of nicotine solvent and battery output voltage. Nicotine Tob Res 2014; 16: 1319–1326.
21. Cogliano VJ, Baan R, Straif K, et al. Preventable exposures associated with human cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst 2011; 103: 1827–1839.
22. Varlet V, Farsalinos K, Augsburger M, et al. Toxicity assessment of refill liquids for electronic cigarettes. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2015; 12: 4796–4815.
23. Jensen RP, Strongin RM, Peyton DH. Solvent chemistry in the electronic cigarette reaction vessel. Sci Rep 2017; 7: 42549.
24. Bahl V, Lin S, Xu N, et al. Comparison of electronic cigarette refill fluid cytotoxicity using embryonic and adult models. Reprod Toxicol 2012; 34: 529–537.
25. Morgan DL, Flake GP, Kirby PJ, et al. Respiratory toxicity of diacetyl in C57BL/6 mice. Toxicol Sci 2008; 103: 169–180.
26. Zaccone EJ, Goldsmith WT, Shimko MJ, et al. Diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione exposure of human cultured airway epithelial cells: ion transport effects and metabolism of butter flavoring agents. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2015; 289: 542–549.
27. Sherwood CL, Boitano S. Airway epithelial cell exposure to distinct e-cigarette liquid flavorings reveals toxicity thresholds and activation of CFTR by the chocolate flavoring 2,5-dimethypyrazine. Respir Res 2016; 17: 57.
28. Williams M, Villarreal A, Bozhilov K, et al. Metal and silicate particles including nanoparticles are present in electronic cigarette cartomizer fluid and aerosol. PLoS One 2013; 8: e57987.
29. Jugan ML, Barillet S, Simon-Deckers A, et al. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles exhibit genotoxicity and impair DNA repair activity in A549 cells. Nanotoxicology 2012; 6: 501–513.
30. Zhang Y, Sumner W, Chen DR. In vitro particle size distributions in electronic and conventional cigarette aerosols suggest comparable deposition patterns. Nicotine Tob Res 2013; 15: 501–508.
31. Mikheev VB, Brinkman MC, Granville CA, et al. Real-time measurement of electronic cigarette aerosol size distribution and metals content analysis. Nicotine Tob Res 2016; 18: 1895–1902.
32. Ferrari M, Zanasi A, Nardi E, et al. Short-term effects of a nicotine-free e-cigarette compared to a traditional cigarette in smokers and non-smokers. BMC Pulm Med 2015; 15: 120.
33. Misra M, Leverette R, Cooper B, et al. Comparative in vitro toxicity profile of electronic and tobacco cigarettes, smokeless tobacco and nicotine replacement therapy products: e-liquids, extracts and collected aerosols. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2014; 11: 11325–11347.
34. Putzhammer R, Doppler C, Jakschitz T, et al. Vapours of US and EU market leader electronic cigarette brands and liquids are cytotoxic for human vascular endothelial cells. PLoS One 2016; 11: e0157337.
35. Cervellati F, Muresan XM, Sticozzi C, et al. Comparative effects between electronic and cigarette smoke in human keratinocytes and epithelial lung cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2014; 28: 999–1005.
36. Higham A, Rattray NJ, Dewhurst JA, et al. Electronic cigarette exposure triggers neutrophil inflammatory responses. Respir Res 2016; 17: 56.
37. Wu Q, Jiang D, Minor M, et al. Electronic cigarette liquid increases inflammation and virus infection in primary human airway epithelial cells. PLoS One 2014; 9: e108342.
38. Sussan TE, Gajghate S, Thimmulappa RK, et al. Exposure to electronic cigarettes impairs pulmonary anti-bacterial and anti-viral defenses in a mouse model. PLoS One 2015; 10: e0116861.
39. Hwang H, et al. Crotty Alexander LE, Enany S, Hwang H, et al. E-cigarettes May Boost Resistance of Drug-Resistant Pathogens. American Thoracic Society International Conference, San Diego, 2014.
40. Shen Y, Wolkowicz MJ, Kotova T, et al. Transcriptome sequencing reveals e-cigarette vapor and mainstream-smoke from tobacco cigarettes activate different gene expression profiles in human bronchial epithelial cells. Sci Rep 2016; 6: 23984.
41. Cressey D. E-cigarettes affect cells. Nature 2014; 508: 159.
42. Canistro D, Vivarelli F, Cirillo S, et al. E-cigarettes induce toxicological effects that can raise the cancer risk. Sci Rep 2017; 7: 2028.
43. Tweed JO, Hsia SH, Lutfy K, et al. The endocrine effects of nicotine and cigarette smoke. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2012; 23: 334–342.
44. Thorne D, Crooks I, Hollings M, et al. The mutagenic assessment of an electronic-cigarette and reference cigarette smoke using the Ames assay in strains TA98 and TA100. Mutat Res 2016; 812: 29–38.
45. Sanner T, Grimsrud TK. Nicotine: carcinogenicity and effects on response to cancer treatment – a review. Front Oncol 2015; 5: 196.
46. Monroy AE, Hommel E, Smith ST, et al. Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation following electronic cigarette use in an elderly woman. Clin Geriatr 2012; 20: 28–32.
47. Kivrak T, Sunbul M, Durmus E, et al. Acute myocardial infarction due to liquid nicotine in a young man. Ther Adv Cardiovasc Dis 2014; 8: 32–34.
48. Hua M, Talbot P. Potential health effects of electronic cigarettes: a systematic review of case reports. Prev Med Rep 2016; 4: 169–178.
49. Vardavas CI, Anagnostopoulos N, Kougias M, et al. Short-term pulmonary effects of using an electronic cigarette: impact on respiratory flow resistance, impedance, and exhaled nitric oxide. Chest 2012; 141: 1400–1406.
50. Ferrante G, Malizia V, Antona R, et al. The value of FeNO measurement in childhood asthma: uncertainties and perspectives. Multidiscip Respir Med 2013; 8: 50.
51. Schober W, Szendrei K, Matzen W, et al. Use of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) impairs indoor air quality and increases FeNO levels of e-cigarette consumers. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2014; 217: 628–637.
52. US Food and Drug Administration. The Facts on the FDA's New Tobacco Rule. Date last accessed: December 3, 2016. Date last updated: June 16, 2016.
53. Barraza LF, Weidenaar KE, Cook LT, et al. Regulations and policies regarding e-cigarettes. Cancer 2017; 123: 3007–3014.
54. Clarke T, Mincer J. U.S. House Bill Would Exempt E-Cigarettes From Tobacco Regulations. Reuters, 2017.
55. Cheng T. Chemical evaluation of electronic cigarettes. Tob Control 2014; 23: Suppl. 2, ii11–ii17.
56. Buettner-Schmidt K, Miller DR. An observational study of compliance with North Dakota's smoke-free law among retail stores that sell electronic smoking devices. Tob Control 2017; 26, 452–454.
57. Farsalinos KE, Polosa R. Safety evaluation and risk assessment of electronic cigarettes as tobacco cigarette substitutes: a systematic review. Ther Adv Drug Saf 2014; 5: 67–86.
58. Sisler L, Meernik C, Ripley-Moffitt C, et al. Case study: use of electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) by a pregnant woman. J Smok Cessat 2017; 12: 139–142.
59. Baeza-Loya S, Viswanath H, Carter A, et al. Perceptions about e-cigarette safety may lead to e-smoking during pregnancy. Bull Menninger Clin 2014; 78: 243–252.
60. Løchen ML. The electronic cigarette, do we need to worry? Eur Heart J 2017; 38: 1870.
61. Polosa R. Electronic cigarette use and harm reversal: emerging evidence in the lung. BMC Med 2015; 13: 54.
62. Bullen C, McRobbie H, Thornley S, et al. Effect of an electronic nicotine delivery device (e cigarette) on desire to smoke and withdrawal, user preferences and nicotine delivery: randomised cross-over trial. Tob Control 2010; 19: 98–103.
63. Bullen C, Howe C, Laugesen M, et al. Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2013; 382: 1629–1637.
64. Rahman MA, Hann N, Wilson A, et al. E-cigarettes and smoking cessation: evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2015; 10: e0122544.
65. Rigotti NA. Strategies to help a smoker who is struggling to quit. JAMA 2012; 308: 1573–1580.
66. Benowitz NL, Goniewicz ML. The regulatory challenge of electronic cigarettes. JAMA 2013; 310: 685–686.
67. McAuley TR, Hopke PK, Zhao J, et al. Comparison of the effects of e-cigarette vapor and cigarette smoke on indoor air quality. Inhal Toxicol 2012; 24: 850–857.
68. Lim HH, Shin HS. Measurement of aldehydes in replacement liquids of electronic cigarettes by headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Bull Korean Chem Soc 2013; 34: 2691–2696.
69. Goniewicz ML, Knysak J, Gawron M, et al. Levels of selected carcinogens and toxicants in vapour from electronic cigarettes. Tob Control 2014; 23: 133–139.
70. Fowles J, Bates, M, Noiton D. The Chemical Constituents in Cigarettes and Cigarette Smoke: Priorities for Harm Reduction. A Report to the New Zealand Ministry of Health. 2000.
71. National Research Council of the National Academies. Emergency and Continuous Exposure Guidance Levels for Selected Submarine Contaminants. Washington, DC, National Academies Press, 2009.
72. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Acetaldehyde Hazard Summary. Washington, DC, United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000.
73. Feron VJ, Kruysse A, Woutersen RA. Respiratory tract tumours in hamsters exposed to acetaldehyde vapour alone or simultaneously to benzo(a)pyrene or diethylnitrosamine. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 1982; 18: 13–31.
74. Setshedi M, Wands JR, Monte SM. Acetaldehyde adducts in alcoholic liver disease. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2010; 3: 178–185.
75. Lieber CS. Metabolic effects of acetaldehyde. Biochem Soc Trans 1988; 16: 241–247.
76. Uchiyama S, Inaba Y, Kunugita N. Determination of acrolein and other carbonyls in cigarette smoke using coupled silica cartridges impregnated with hydroquinone and 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine. J Chromatogr A 2010; 1217: 4383–4388.
77. Laugesen M. Safety Report on the Ruyan® e-Cigarette Cartridge and Inhaled Aerosol. Christchurch, Health New Zealand, 2008.
78. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Toxicological Profile for Acetone. Atlanta, GA, US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 1994.
79. Talhout R, Schulz T, Florek E, et al. Hazardous compounds in tobacco smoke. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2011; 8: 613–628.
80. Harris JE. Cigarette Smoke Components and Disease: Cigarette Smoke is More than a Triad of Tar, Nicotine, and Carbon Monoxide. Bethesda, National Cancer Institute, 1996.
81. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Medical Management Guidelines for Acrolein. www.atsdr.cdc.gov/MMG/MMG.asp?id=552&tid=102 Date last accessed: June 11, 2017. Date last updated: Oct 21, 2014.
82. Moghe A, Ghare S, Lamoreau B, et al. Molecular mechanisms of acrolein toxicity: relevance to human disease. Toxicol Sci 2015; 143: 242–255.
83. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Cadmium: Regulations, Advisories, and Guidelines. Atlanta, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1987.
84. Kippler M, Tofail F, Gardner R, et al. Maternal cadmium exposure during pregnancy and size at birth: a prospective cohort study. Environ Health Perspect 2012; 120: 284–289.
85. Godt J, Scheidig F, Grosse-Siestrup C, et al. The toxicity of cadmium and resulting hazards for human health. J Occup Med Toxicol 2006; 1: 22.
86. Huff J, Lunn RM, Waalkes MP, et al. Cadmium-induced cancers in animals and in humans. Int J Occup Environ Health 2007; 13: 202–212.
87. Rani A, Kumar A, Lal A, et al. Cellular mechanisms of cadmium-induced toxicity: a review. Int J Environ Health Res 2014; 24: 378–399.
88. Jin T, Lu J, Nordberg M. Toxicokinetics and biochemistry of cadmium with special emphasis on the role of metallothionein. Neurotoxicology 1998; 19: 529–535.
89. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Occupational Safety and Health Standards-Chromium. Washington DC, United States Department of Labor, 2012.
90. De Mattia G, Bravi MC, Laurenti O, et al. Impairment of cell and plasma redox state in subjects professionally exposed to chromium. Am J Ind Med 2004; 46: 120–125.
91. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Medical Management Guidelines for Formaldehyde. www.atsdr.cdc.gov/MMG/MMG.asp?id=216&tid=39 Date last accessed: June 12, 2017. Date last updated: Oct 21, 2014.
92. LoPachin RM, Gavin T. Molecular mechanisms of aldehyde toxicity: a chemical perspective. Chem Res Toxicol 2014; 27: 1081–1091.
93. Goniewicz ML, Kuma T, Gawron M, et al. Nicotine levels in electronic cigarettes. Nicotine Tob Res 2013; 15: 158–166.
94. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Nicotine: Systemic Agent. www.cdc.gov/niosh/ershdb/emergencyresponsecard_29750028.html Date last accessed: June 12, 2017. Date last updated: Nov 9, 2017.
95. England LJ, Bunnell RE, Pechacek TF, et al. Nicotine and the developing human: a neglected element in the electronic cigarette debate. Am J Prev Med 2015; 49: 286–293.
96. Kovacic P, Cooksy A. Iminium metabolite mechanism for nicotine toxicity and addiction: oxidative stress and electron transfer. Med Hypotheses 2005; 64: 104–111.
97. Farren NJ, Ramírez N, Lee JD, et al. Estimated exposure risks from carcinogenic nitrosamines in urban airborne particulate matter. Environ Sci Technol 2015; 49: 9648–9656.
98. Hebels DG, Briedé JJ, Khampang R, et al. Radical mechanisms in nitrosamine- and nitrosamide-induced whole-genome gene expression modulations in Caco-2 cells. Toxicol Sci 2010; 116: 194–205.
99. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Toxic and Hazardous Substances, Standard-29CFR. Washington DC, United States Department of Labor, 2017.
100. Rosenberg NL, Spitz MC, Filley CM, et al. Central nervous system effects of chronic toluene abuse – clinical, brainstem evoked response and magnetic resonance imaging studies. Neurotoxicol Teratol 1988; 10: 489–495.
101. Cruz SL, Rivera-García MT, Woodward JJ. Review of toluene action: clinical evidence, animal studies and molecular targets. J Drug Alcohol Res 2014; 3: 235840.
102. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Lead. Information for Employers: Lead Exposure Limits. www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/lead/limits.html Date last accessed: June 18, 2017. Date last updated: April 19, 2017.
103. Wani AL, Ara A, Usmani JA. Lead toxicity: a review. Interdiscip Toxicol 2015; 8: 55–64.
104. Flora G, Gupta D, Tiwari A. Toxicity of lead: a review with recent updates. Interdiscip Toxicol 2012; 5: 47–58.