Implicit and Explicit Racial Attitudes Changed During Black Lives Matter

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Volumn 44, Issue 7, 2018, Pages 1039-1059

  Sawyer, Jeremy ^a   Gampa, Anup ^b  

^a CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Black Lives Matter; IAT; implicit attitudes; racial bias; social movements

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; BLACK PERSON; CAUCASIAN; FEMALE; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; RACISM; AFRICAN AMERICAN; ATTITUDE; PERCEPTION; POLITICAL ACTIVISM; PSYCHOLOGY; UNITED STATES;

AFRICAN AMERICANS; ATTITUDE; EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; POLITICAL ACTIVISM; RACISM; SOCIAL PERCEPTION; UNITED STATES;

EID: 85044073557     PISSN: 01461672     EISSN: 15527433     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0146167218757454     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. Alexander M., (2012). The New Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. New York, NY: The New Press.
2. Anderson M., Hitlin P., (2016). The hashtag #BlackLivesMatter emerges: Social activism on Twitter. Pew Research Report. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2016/08/15/the-hashtag-blacklivesmatter-emerges-social-activism-on-twitter/
3. Axt J. R., (in press). The best way to measure explicit racial attitudes is to ask about them. Social Psychological and Personality Science.
4. Bar-Anan Y., Nosek B. A., (2014). A comparative investigation of seven indirect attitude measures. Behavior Research Methods, 46, 668-688. doi:10.3758/S13428-013-0410-6
5. Baron A. S., Banaji M. R., (2006). The development of implicit attitudes: Evidence of race evaluations from ages 6 and 10 and adulthood. Psychological Science, 17, 53-58. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01664.x
6. Chaney C., Robertson R. V., (2015). Armed and dangerous? An examination of fatal shootings of unarmed Black people by police. Journal of Pan African Studies, 8(4), 45-78.
7. Columb C., Plant E. A., (2011). Revisiting the Obama effect: Exposure to Obama reduces implicit prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 499-501.
8. Columb C., Plant E. A., (2016). The Obama effect six years later: The effect of exposure to Obama on implicit anti-Black evaluative bias and implicit racial stereotyping. Psychological Science, 34, 523-543. doi:10.1521/soco.2016.34.6.523
9. Condran J. G., (1979). Changes in white attitudes toward blacks: 1963-1977. Public Opinion Quarterly, 43, 463-476.
10. Cunningham W. A., Preacher K. J., Banaji M. R., (2001). Implicit attitude measures: Consistency, stability, and convergent validity. Psychological Science, 12, 163-170. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00328
11. Dasgupta N., Desteno D., Williams L. A., Hunsinger M., (2009). Fanning the flames of prejudice: The influence of specific incidental emotions on implicit prejudice. Emotion, 9, 585-591. doi:10.1037/A0015961
12. Dasgupta N., Greenwald A. G., (2001). On the malleability of automatic attitudes: Combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 800-814. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.81.5.800
13. De Houwer J., Teige-Mocigemba S., Spruyt A., Moors A. (2009). Implicit measures: A normative analysis and review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 347-368. doi:10.1037/a0014211
14. Devine P. G., (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5
15. Fields B. J., (1990). Slavery, race and ideology in the United States of America. New Left Review, 1, 95-181.
16. Freelon D., Mcilwain C. D., Clark M. D., (2016). Beyond the hashtags: #Ferguson, #BlackLivesMatter, and the online struggle for offline justice. Center for Media and Social Impact. Retrieved from http://cmsimpact.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/beyond_the_hashtags_2016.pdf
17. Gaertner S. L., Dovidio J. F., (2005). Understanding and addressing contemporary racism: From aversive racism to the common ingroup identity model. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 615-639.
18. Gardner D. G., Cummings L. L., Dunham R. B., Pierce J. L., (1998). Single-item versus multiple-item measurement scales: An empirical comparison. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58, 898-915.
19. Garza A., (2014). A herstory of the #BlackLivesMatter movement. Retrieved from http://blacklivesmatter.com/herstory/
20. Gawronski B., Bodenhausen G. V., (2006). Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 692-731. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.692
21. Gawronski B., Bodenhausen G. V., (2014). Implicit and explicit evaluation: A brief review of the associative–propositional evaluation model. Social & Personality Psychology Compass, 8, 448-462.
22. Greeley A. M., Sheatsley P. B., (1971). Attitudes toward desegregation. Chicago, IL: National Opinion Research Center.
23. Greenwald A. G., Banaji M. R., Nosek B. A., (2015). Statistically small effects of the Implicit Association Test can have societally large effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108, 553-561. doi:10.1037/pspa0000016
24. Greenwald A. G., Nosek B. A., (2001). Health of the implicit association test at age 3. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 48, 85-93.
25. Greenwald A. G., Nosek B. A., Banaji M. R., (2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 197-216. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197
26. Horowitz J. M., Livingston G., (2016). How Americans view the Black Lives Matter movement. Pew Research Report. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/07/08/how-americans-view-the-black-lives-matter-movement/
27. Inbar Y., Westgate E. C., Pizarro D. A., Nosek B. A., (2016). Can a naturally occurring pathogen threat change social attitudes? Evaluations of gay men and lesbians during the 2014 Ebola epidemic. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7, 420-427. doi:10.1177/1948550616639651
28. Jost J. T., Nosek B. A., Gosling S. D., (2008). Ideology: Its resurgence in social, personality, and political psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 126-136.
29. Jost J. T., Rudman L. A., Blair I. V., Carney D. R., Dasgupta N., Glaser J., Hardin C. D., (2009). The existence of implicit bias is beyond reasonable doubt: A refutation of ideological and methodological objections and executive summary of ten studies that no manager should ignore. Research in Organizational Behavior, 29, 39-69. doi:10.1016/j.riob.2009.10.001
30. Kowal J. F., (2015). The improbable victory of marriage equality. In Weiss-Wolf J., Plant-Chirlin J., (Eds.), Legal change: Lessons from America’s social movements (pp. 25-44). New York. Retrieved from https://www.brennancenter.org/publication/legal-change-lessons-americas-social-movements
31. Lai C. K., Hoffman K. M., Nosek B. A., (2013). Reducing implicit prejudice. Social & Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 315-330. doi:10.1111/Spc3.12023
32. Lai C. K., Skinner A. L., Cooley E., Murrar S., Brauer M., Devos T... Nosek B. A., (2016). Reducing implicit racial preferences: II. Intervention effectiveness across time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145, 1001-1016. doi:10.1037/Xge0000179
33. Leitner J. B., Hehman E., Ayduk O., Mendoza-Denton R., (2016). Blacks’ death rate due to circulatory diseases is positively related to Whites’ explicit racial bias: A nationwide investigation using project implicit. Psychological Science, 27, 1299-1311.
34. Livingston R. W., (2002). The role of perceived negativity in the moderation of African Americans’ implicit and explicit racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 405-413. doi:10.1016/S0022-1031(02)00002-1
35. Lohr S. L., (2010). Sampling: Design and analysis. Boston, MA: Brooks/Cole.
36. Marks J., (1996). Science and race. American Behavioral Scientist, 40, 123-133.
37. McConnell A. R., Leibold J. M., (2001). Relations among the Implicit Association Test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 435-442. doi:10.1006/Jesp.2000.1470
38. Nosek B. A., Greenwald A. G., Banaji M. R., (2007). The Implicit Association Test at age 7: A methodological and conceptual review. In Bargh J. A., (Ed.), Social psychology and the unconscious: The automaticity of higher mental processes (pp. 265-292). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
39. Nosek B. A., Hawkins C. B., Frazier R. S., (2011). Implicit social cognition: From measures to mechanisms. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 152-159. doi:10.1016/J.Tics.2011.01.005
40. Nosek B. A., Smyth F. L., Hansen J. J., Devos T., Lindner N. M., Ranganath K. A... Banaji M. R., (2007). Pervasiveness and correlates of implicit attitudes and stereotypes. European Review of Social Psychology, 18, 36-88. doi:10.1080/10463280701489053
41. Omi M., Winant H., (2014). Racial formation in the United States. New York, NY: Routledge.
42. Orchard J., Price J., (2017). County-level racial prejudice and the black-white gap in infant health outcomes. Social Science & Medicine, 181, 191-198.
43. Oswald F. L., Mitchell G., Blanton H., Jaccard J., Tetlock P. E., (2013). Predicting ethnic and racial discrimination: A meta-analysis of IAT criterion studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 171-192. doi:10.1037/a0032734
44. Petersen-Smith K., (2015). Black Lives Matter. International Socialist Review, 96. Retrieved from https://isreview.org/issue/96/black-lives-matter
45. Petty R. E., Briñol P., DeMarree K. G., (2007). The Meta–Cognitive Model (MCM) of attitudes: Implications for attitude measurement, change, and strength. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25, 657-686. doi:10.1521/Soco.2007.25.5.657
46. Pinkston K., (2015). The Black-White malleability gap in implicit racial evaluations: A nationally representative study. The Journal of Social Psychology, 155, 189-203. doi:10.1080/00224545.2014.987200
47. Plant E. A., Devine P. G., Cox W. T., Columb C., Miller S. L., Goplen J., Peruche B. M., (2009). The Obama effect: Decreasing implicit prejudice and stereotyping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 961-964.
48. Rydell R. J., McConnell A. R., (2006). Understanding implicit and explicit attitude change: A systems of reasoning analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 995-1008. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.6.995
49. Sawilowsky S. S., (2009). New effect size rules of thumb. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 8, 597-599.
50. Schmidt K., Axt J. R., (2016). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward African Americans and Barack Obama did not substantively change during Obama’s presidency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 559-588. doi:10.1521/soco.2016.34.6.559
51. Schmidt K., Nosek B. A., (2010). Implicit (and explicit) racial attitudes barely changed during Barack Obama’s presidential campaign and early presidency. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 308-314. doi:10.1016/J.Jesp.2009.12.003
52. Schroeder J., Kardas M., Epley N., (2017). The humanizing voice: Speech reveals, and text conceals, a more thoughtful mind in the midst of disagreement. Psychological Science, 28, 1745-1762.
53. Smith T. W., Marsden P. V., Hout M., Kim J., (2016). General Social Surveys, 1972–2012. Chicago, IL: NORC at the University of Chicago. Available from gssdataexplorer.norc.org
54. Staats C., Capatosto K., Wright R. A., Contractor D., (2015). State of the science: Implicit bias review 2015. Retrieved from http://kirwaninstitute.osu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/2015-kirwan-implicit-bias.pdf
55. Stewart T. L., Latu I. M., Branscombe N. R., Denney H. T., (2010). Yes we can! Prejudice reduction through seeing (inequality) and believing (in social change). Psychological Science, 21, 1557-1562.
56. Tate C., Audette D., (2001). Theory and research on “race” as a natural kind variable in psychology. Theory & Psychology, 11, 495-520.
57. Taylor D. G., Sheatsley P. B., Greeley A. M., (1978). Attitudes toward racial integration. Scientific American, 238(6), 42-49.
58. Thistlethwaite D. L., Campbell D. T., (1960). Regression-discontinuity analysis: An alternative to the ex post facto experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51, 309-317. doi:10.1037/H0044319
59. Walther E., Trasselli C., (2003). I like her, because I like myself: Self-evaluation as a source of interpersonal attitudes. Experimental Psychology, 50, 239-246. doi:10.1026//1618-3169.50.4.239
60. Westgate E., Riskind R. G., Nosek B. A., (2015). Implicit preferences for straight people over lesbian women and gay men weakened from 2006 to 2013. Collabra, 1, 1-10. doi:10.1525/collabra.18
61. Xu K., Lofaro N., Nosek B. A., Greenwald A. G., (2016). Race IAT 2002-2015. Retrieved from osf.io/52qxl
62. Zerhouni O., Rougier M., Muller D., (2016). “Who (really) is Charlie?” French cities with lower implicit prejudice toward Arabs demonstrated larger participation rates in Charlie Hebdo rallies. International Review of Social Psychology, 29, 69-76. doi:10.5334/irsp.50