Should the Gross Motor Function Classification System be used for children who do not have cerebral palsy?

Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology

Volumn 60, Issue 2, 2018, Pages 147-154

  Towns, Megan ^a,b   Rosenbaum, Peter ^c,d   Palisano, Robert ^c,e   Wright, F Virginia ^a,b,c  

^a University of Toronto   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^c MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^d MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^e DREXEL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CEREBRAL PALSY; CLINICAL PRACTICE; DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; EMBASE; GROSS MOTOR FUNCTION CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM; HUMAN; MEDLINE; MOTONEURON; MOTOR DYSFUNCTION; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RETROSPECTIVE STUDY; REVIEW; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; CLASSIFICATION; DISABILITY; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; MOVEMENT (PHYSIOLOGY); PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY;

CEREBRAL PALSY; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; DISABILITY EVALUATION; HUMANS; MOTOR SKILLS; MOVEMENT;

EID: 85032916970     PISSN: 00121622     EISSN: 14698749     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.13602     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Palisano R, Rosenbaum P, Walter S, Russell D, Wood E, Galuppi B. Development and reliability of a system to classify gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 1997; 39: 214–23.
2. Rosenbaum P, Eliasson AC, Hidecker MJ, Palisano RJ. Classification in childhood disability: focusing on function in the 21st century. J Child Neurol 2014; 29: 1036–45.
3. Gray L, Ng H, Bartlett D. The Gross Motor Function Classification System: an update on impact and clinical utility. Pediatr Phys Ther 2010; 22: 315–20.
4. Palisano RJ, Rosenbaum P, Bartlett D, Livingston MH. Content validity of the expanded and revised Gross Motor Function Classification System. Dev Med Child Neurol 2008; 50: 744–50.
5. Hanna SE, Bartlett DJ, Rivard LM, Russell DJ. Reference curves for the Gross Motor Function Measure: percentiles for clinical description and tracking over time among children with cerebral palsy. Phys Ther 2008; 88: 596–607.
6. Rosenbaum PL, Walter SD, Hanna SE, et al. Prognosis for gross motor function in cerebral palsy: creation of motor development curves. JAMA 2002; 288: 1357–63.
7. Russell DJ, Rosenbaum PL, Wright M, Avery LM. Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM-66 & GMFM 88) User's Manual. 2nd edn. London: Mac Keith Press, 2013.
8. Palisano RJ, Cameron D, Rosenbaum PL, Walter SD, Russell D. Stability of the Gross Motor Function Classification System. Dev Med Child Neurol 2006; 48: 424–8.
9. Morris C, Bartlett D. Gross Motor Function Classification System: impact and utitlity. Dev Med Child Neurol 2004; 46: 60–5.
10. Laptook AR, McDonald SA, Shankaran S, et al. Elevated temperature and 6- to 7-year outcome of neonatal encephalopathy. Ann Neurol 2013; 73: 520–8.
11. Leviton A, Allred EN, Dammann O, et al. Systemic inflammation, intraventricular hemorrhage, and white matter injury. J Child Neurol 2012; 28: 1637–45.
12. Newman JE, Bann CM, Vohr BR, Dusick AM, Higgins RD. Improving the Neonatal Research Network annual certification for neurologic examination of the 18-22 month child. J Pediatr 2012; 161: 1041–6.
13. Rose J, Butler EE, Lamont LE, Barnes PD, Atlas SW, Stevenson DK. Neonatal brain structure on MRI and diffusion tensor imaging, sex, and neurodevelopment in very-low-birthweight preterm children. Dev Med Child Neurol 2009; 51: 526–35.
14. Sivakumar G, Yap Y, Tsegaye M, Vloeberghs M. Intrathecal baclofen therapy for spasticity of cerebral origin – does the position of the intrathecal catheter matter? Childs Nerv Syst 2010; 26: 1097–102.
15. Sayer C, Lumsden DE, Perides S, et al. Intrathecal baclofen trials: complications and positive yield in a pediatric cohort. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2016; 17: 240–5.
16. Gür G, Erel S, Yakut Y, Aksoy C, Uygur F. One-year follow-up study of serial orthotic treatment in two cases with arthrogrypotic syndromes who have bilateral knee flexion contractures. Prosthet Orthot Int 2016; 40: 388–93.
17. Gordon AL, Wood A, Tournier JD, Hunt RW. Corticospinal tract integrity and motor function following neonatal stroke: a case study. BMC Neurol 2012; 12: 53.
18. Bonouvrié L, Becher J, Soudant D, et al. The effect of intrathecal baclofen treatment on activities of daily life in children and young adults with cerebral palsy and progressive neurological disorders. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2016; 20: 538–44.
19. Åhsgren I, Baldwin I, Goetzinger-Falk C, Erikson A, Flodmark O, Gillberg C. Ataxia, autism, and the cerebellum: a clinical study of 32 individuals with congenital ataxia. Dev Med Child Neurol 2005; 47: 193–8.
20. Alschuler KN, Kratz AL, Ehde DM. Resilience and vulnerability in individuals with chronic pain and physical disability. Rehabil Psychol 2016; 61: 7–18.
21. Cester EA, Bloomfield FH, Taylor J, Smith S, Cormack BE. Do recommended protein intakes improve neurodevelopment in extremely preterm babies? Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2015; 100: F243–7.
22. Dehaes M, Aggarwal A, Lin PY, et al. Cerebral oxygen metabolism in neonatal hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy during and after therapeutic hypothermia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2014; 34: 87–94.
23. Dunin-Wasowicz D, Kasprzyk-Obara J, Jurkiewicz E, Kapusta M, Milewska-Bobula B. Infantile spasms and cytomegalovirus infection: antiviral and antiepileptic treatment. Dev Med Child Neurol 2007; 49: 684–92.
24. Gimeno H, Tustin K, Lumsden D, Ashkan K, Selway R, Lin JP. Evaluation of functional goal outcomes using the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM) following Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) in childhood dystonia. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2014; 18: 308–16.
25. Glanzman AM, Kim H, Swaminathan K, Beck T. Efficacy of botulinum toxin A, serial casting, and combined treatment for spastic equinus: a retrospective analysis. Dev Med Child Neurol 2004; 46: 807–11.
26. Grootveld LR, van Schie PE, Buizer AI, et al. Sudden falls as a persistent complication of selective dorsal rhizotomy surgery in children with bilateral spasticity: report of 3 cases. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2016; 18: 192–5.
27. Kawaguchi C, Morinaga M, Kubota M, Saito H, Tomiwa K, Uchiike N. Increased oxidative stress in patients with severe disability: association with nutrition. Pediatr Int 2016; 58: 1183–7.
28. Kutscher A, Nestler U, Bernhard MK, et al. Adult long-term health-related quality of life of congenital hydrocephalus patients. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2015; 16: 621–5.
29. Liow NY, Gimeno H, Lumsden DE, et al. Gabapentin can significantly improve dystonia severity and quality of life in children. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2016; 20: 100–7.
30. Lombard KA. Physical therapy for a child poststroke with a left ventricular assist device. Pediatr Phys Ther 2016; 28: 126–32.
31. Mahoney G, Robinson C, Fewell RR. The effects of early motor intervention on children with Down syndrome or cerebral palsy: a field-based study. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2001; 22: 153–62.
32. Marsico P, Frontzek-Weps V, Balzer J, van Hedel HJ. Hypertonia assessment tool: reliability and validity in children with neuromotor disorders. J Child Neurol 2017; 32: 132–8.
33. Matthews M, Blandford S, Marsden J, Freeman J. The use of dynamic elastomeric fabric orthosis suits as an orthotic intervention in the management of children with neuropathic onset scoliosis: a retrospective audit of routine clinical case notes. Scoliosis Spinal Disord 2016; 11: 14.
34. Mensch SM, Echteld MA, Evenhuis HM, Rameckers EAA. Construct validity and responsiveness of Movakic: an instrument for the evaluation of motor abilities in children with severe multiple disabilities. Res Dev Disabil 2016; 59: 194–201.
35. Mimouni-Bloch A, Goldberg-Stern H, Strausberg R, et al. Thiamine deficiency in infancy: long-term follow-up. Pediatr Neurol 2014; 51: 311–6.
36. Motta F, Antonello CE. Comparison between an Ascenda and a silicone catheter in intrathecal baclofen therapy in pediatric patients: analysis of complications. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2016; 18: 493–8.
37. Ramoğlu M, Kavuncuoğlu S, Aldemir E, Yarar C, Eras Z. Neurodevelopment of preterm infants born after in vitro fertilization and spontaneous multiple pregnancy. Pediatr Int 2016; 58: 1284–90.
38. Rieger-Fackeldey E, Blank C, Dinger J, Steinmacher J, Bode H, Schulze A. Growth, neurological and cognitive development in infants with a birthweight <501 g at age 5 years. Acta Paediatr 2010; 99: 1350–5.
39. Roze E, Van Braeckel KN, van der Veere CN, Maathuis CG, Martijn A, Bos AF. Functional outcome at school age of preterm infants with periventricular hemorrhagic infarction. Pediatrics 2009; 123: 1493–500.
40. Sehgal R, Gulati S, Sapra S, Tripathi M, Kabra M, Pandey RM. Neurodevelopmental and epilepsy outcome in children aged one to five years with infantile spasms – a North Indian cohort. Epilepsy Res 2014; 108: 526–34.
41. Stasikelis PJ, Creek AT, Wack LI. Tibial rotation osteotomies in a matched cohort of myelodysplasia and cerebral palsy children. J Pediatr Orthop 2016; 1. https://doi.org/10.1097/bpo.0000000000000888 [E-pub ahead of print].
42. van Berge L, Hamilton EM, Linnankivi T, et al. Leukoencephalopathy with brainstem and spinal cord involvement and lactate elevation: clinical and genetic characterization and target for therapy. Brain 2014; 137: 1019–29.
43. Watanabe G, Kawaguchi S, Matsuyama T, Yamashita T. Correlation of scoliotic curvature with Z-score bone mineral density and body mass index in patients with osteogenesis imperfecta. Spine 2007; 32: e488–94.
44. Trinick RE, Bunni L, Thorburn K, Hackett AP, Dalzell M, McNamara PS. An observational study examining the relationship between respiratory symptoms, airway inflammation and bacteriology in children with severe neurodisability. PLoS ONE 2015; 10: e0124627.
45. Amirsalari S, Yousefi J, Radfar S, et al. Cochlear implant outcomes in children with motor developmental delay. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2012; 76: 100–3.
46. Baque E, Barber L, Sakzewski L, Boyd RN. Test-re-test reproducibility of activity capacity measures for children with an acquired brain injury. Brain Inj 2016; 30: 1143–9.
47. Dawson NC, Padoa KA, Bucks RS, et al. Ventilatory function in children with severe motor disorders using night-time postural equipment. Dev Med Child Neurol 2013; 55: 751–7.
48. Lansdale N, McNiff M, Morecroft J, Kauffmann L, Morabito A. Long-term and ‘patient-reported’ outcomes of total esophagogastric dissociation versus laparoscopic fundoplication for gastroesophageal reflux disease in the severely neurodisabled child. J Pediatr Surg 2015; 50: 1828–32.
49. Laughton M, O'Shea MT, Allred EN, et al. Chronic lung disease and developmental delay at 2 years of age in children born before 28 weeks' gestation. Pediatrics 2009; 124: 637–48.
50. Memarian N, Venetsanopoulos AN, Chau T. Body functions and structures pertinent to infrared thermography-based access for clients with severe motor disabilities. Assist Technol 2011; 23: 53–64.
51. Rodenbusch TL, Ribeiro TS, Simão CR, Britto HM, Tudella E, Lindquist AR. Effects of treadmill inclination on the gait of children with Down syndrome. Res Dev Disabil 2013; 34: 2185–90.
52. Sakzewski L, Lewis MJ, McKinlay L, Ziviani J, Boyd RN. Impact of multi-modal web-based rehabilitation on occupational performance and upper limb outcomes: pilot randomized trial in children with acquired brain injuries. Dev Med Child Neurol 2016; 58: 1257–64.
53. Waninge A, van der Putten AA, Stewart RE, Steenbergen B, van Wijck R, van der Schans CP. Heart rate and physical activity patterns in persons with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities. J Strength Cond Res 2013; 27: 3150–8.
54. Winkler S, Romero S, Prather E, Ramroop M, Slaibe E, Christensen M. Innovative power wheelchair control interface: a proof-of-concept study. Am J Occup Ther 2016; 70: 70023500101–5.
55. Baker R, McGinley JL, Schwartz MH, et al. The Gait Profile Score and Movement Analysis Profile. Gait Posture 2009; 30: 265–9.
56. Matsumoto H, Clayton-Krasinski DA, Klinge SA, et al. Development and initial validation of the Assessment of Caregiver Experience with Neuromuscular Disease. J Pediatr Orthop 2011; 31: 284–92.
57. Mitteregger E, Marsico P, Balzer J, van Hedel HJ. Translation and construct validity of the Trunk Control Measurement Scale in children and youths with brain lesions. Res Dev Disabil 2015; 45–46: 343–52.
58. Miyamura K, Hashimoto K, Honda M. Validity and reliability of Ability for Basic Movement Scale for Children (ABMS-C) in disabled pediatric patients. Brain Dev 2011; 33: 508–11.
59. Rose J, Mirmiran M, Butler EE, et al. Neonatal microstructural development of the internal capsule on diffusion tensor imaging correlates with severity of gait and motor deficits. Dev Med Child Neurol 2007; 49: 745–50.
60. Williams EN, Carroll SG, Reddihough DS, Phillips BA, Galea MP. Investigation of the timed ‘Up & Go’ test in children. Dev Med Child Neurol 2005; 47: 518–24.
61. Arnold SH, McEwan IR. Item test-retest reliability and responsiveness of the School Outcomes Measure (SOM). Phys Occup Ther Pediatr 2008; 28: 59–77.
62. Waninge A, Evenhuis IJ, van Wijck R, van der Schans CP. Feasibility and reliability of two different walking tests in people with severe intellectual and sensory disabilities. J Appl Res Intellect Disabil 2011; 24: 518–27.
63. Waninge A, van Wijck R, Steenbergen B, van den Schans CP. Feasibility and reliability of the modified Berg Balance Scale in persons with severe intellectual and visual disabilities. J Intellect Disabil Res 2011; 55: 292–301.
64. Van Schie PE, Schothorst M, Dallmeijer AJ, et al. Short- and long-term effects of selective dorsal rhizotomy on gross motor function in ambulatory children with spastic diplegia. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2011; 7: 557–62.
65. Spies EE, Lababidi SL, McBride MC. Early hyperglycemia is associated with poor gross motor outcome in asphyxiated term newborns. Pediatr Neurol 2014; 50: 586–90.
66. Gooch JL, Oberg WA, Grams B, Ward LA, Walker ML. Care provider assessment of intrathecal baclofen in children. Dev Med Child Neurol 2004; 46: 548–52.
67. Havinga-Top AM, Waninge A, van der Schans CP, Jager-Wittenaar H. Feasibility of bioelectrical impedance analysis in persons with severe intellectual and visual disabilities. Res Dev Disabil 2015; 47: 126–34.
68. Flamand-Rouvière C, Guettard E, Moreau C, et al. Speech disturbances in patients with dystonia or chorea due to neurometabolic disorders. Move Disord 2010; 25: 1605–11.
69. Sharpe AN, Forsyth R. Acute paediatric paraplegia: a case series review. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2013; 17: 620–4.
70. Rysavy MA, Li L, Bell EF, et al. Between-hospital variation in treatment and outcomes in extremely preterm infants. N Engl J Med 2015; 372: 1801–11.
71. Piškur B, Beurskens AJ, Jongmans MJ, Ketelaar M, Smeets RJ. What do parents need to enhance participation of their school-aged child with a physical disability? A cross-sectional study in the Netherlands. Child Care Health Dev 2015; 41: 84–92.
72. Peralta-Carcelen M, Moses M, Adams-Chapman I, et al. Stability of neuromotor outcomes at 18 and 30 months of age after extremely low birth weight status. Pediatrics 2009; 123: e887–95.
73. Madhavan S, Campbell SK, Campise-Luther R, et al. Correlation between fractional anisotropy and motor outcomes in one-year-old infants with periventricular brain injury. J Magn Reson Imaging 2014; 39: 949–57.
74. Kato T, Tsuji T, Hayakawa F, et al. A new electroencephalogram classification with reduced recording time in asphyxiated term infants. Brain Dev 2014; 36: 372–9.
75. Holm M, Msall ME, Skranes J, Dammann O, Allred E, Leviton A. Antecedents and correlates of visual field deficits in children born extremely preterm. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2015; 19: 56–63.
76. Ghosh D, Mainali G, Khera J, Luciano M. Complications of intrathecal baclofen pumps in children: experience from a tertiary care center. Pediatr Neurosurg 2013; 49: 138–44.
77. Duncan AF, Watterberg KL, Nolen TL, et al. Effect of ethnicity and race on cognitive and language testing at age 18-22 months in extremely preterm infants. J Pediatr 2012; 160: 966–71.
78. Adams-Chapman I, Bann CM, Vaucher YE, Stoll BJ. Association between feeding difficulties and language delay in preterm infants using Bayley Scales of Infant Development-Third Edition. J Pediatr 2013; 163: 680–5.
79. Boyd LA, Msall ME, O'Shea MT, Allred EN, Hounshell G, Leviton A. Social-emotional delays at 2 years in extremely low gestational age survivors: correlates of impaired orientation/engagement and emotional regulation. Early Hum Dev 2013; 89: 925–30.
80. Kilpinen-Loisa P, Paasio T, Soiva M, et al. Low bone mass in patients with motor disability: prevalence and risk factors in 59 Finnish children. Dev Med Child Neurol 2010; 52: 276–82.
81. Bernardo J, Friedman H, Minich N, Taylor HG, Wilson-Costello D, Hack M. Cognitive and motor function of neurologically impaired extremely low birth weight children. Paediatr Child Health 2015; 20: e33–7.
82. Franz AR, Pohlandt F, Bode H, et al. Intrauterine, early neonatal, and postdischarge growth and neurodevelopment outcome at 5.4 years in extremely preterm infants after intensive neonatal nutritional support. Pediatrics 2009; 123: e101–9.
83. Hintz SR, Barnes PD, Bulas D, et al. Neuroimaging and neurodevelopmental outcome in extremely preterm infants. Pediatrics 2015; 135: e32–42.
84. Basu SK, Kaiser JR, Guffey D, et al. Hypoglycaemia and hyperglycaemia are associated with unfavourable outcome in infants with hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy: a post hoc analysis of the CoolCap Study. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2016; 101: F149–55.
85. Sharma J, Bonfield C, Steinbok P. Selective dorsal rhizotomy for hereditary spastic paraparesis in children. Childs Nerv Syst 2016; 32: 1489–94.
86. Kuşkonmaz B, Uçkan D, Yalnizoğlu D, et al. Mesenchymal stem cell application in children with subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. Dev Med Child Neurol 2015; 57: 880–3.
87. Hamad AP, Caboclo LO, Centeno R, et al. Hemispheric surgery for refractory epilepsy in children and adolescents: outcome regarding seizures, motor skills and adaptive function. Seizure 2013; 22: 752–6.
88. Geva-Dayan K, Domenievitz D, Zahalka R, Fattal-Valevski A. Botulinum toxin injections for pediatric patients with hereditary spastic paraparesis. J Child Neurol 2010; 25: 969–75.
89. Kara OK, Mutlu A, Gunel MK. The results of early physiotherapy on a child with incontinentia pigmenti with encephalocele. BMJ Case Rep 2010; 2010: pii: bcr0320102814. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr.03.2010.2814.
90. Kim CT, Han J, Kim H. Pediatric stroke recovery: a descriptive analysis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009; 90: 657–62.
91. Matos MA, Barreto R, Acosta AX. Evaluation of motor response in mucopolysaccharidosis patients treated with enzyme replacement therapy. Ortop Traumatol Rehabil 2013; 15: 389–93.
92. Sewell MD, Wallace C, Gibson A, et al. A retrospective review to assess whether spinal fusion and scoliosis correction improved activity and participation for children with Angelman syndrome. Dev Neurorehabil 2016; 19: 315–20.
93. van Empelen R, Jennekens-Schinkel A, Buskens E, Helders PJM, van Nieuwenhuizen O; Dutch Collaborative Epilepsy Surgery Programme. Functional consequences of hemisperectomy. Brain 2004; 127: 2071–9.
94. van Empelen R, Jennekens-Schinkel A, Gorter JW, et al. Epilepsy surgery does not harm motor performance of children and adolescents. Brain 2005; 128: 1536–45.
95. Yang JH, Suh SW, Cho WT, Hwang JH, Hong JY, Modi HN. Effect of posterior multilevel vertebral osteotomies on coronal and sagittal balance in fused scoliosis deformity caused by previous surgery: preliminary results. Spine 2014; 39: 1840–9.
96. Schmidt B, Anderson PJ, Doyle LW, et al. Survival without disability to age 5 years after neonatal caffeine therapy for apnea of prematurity. JAMA 2012; 307: 275–82.
97. Trotter A, Steinmacher J, Kron M, Pohlandt F. Neurodevelopmental follow-up at five years corrected age of extremely low birth weight infants after postnatal replacement of 17 β-estradiol and progesterone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 1041–7.
98. Azzopardi DV, Strohm B, Edwards AD, et al. Moderate hypothermia to treat perinatal asphyxial encephalopathy. N Engl J Med 2009; 361: 1349–58.
99. Baque E, Barber L, Sakzewski L, Boyd RN. Reproducibility in measuring physical activity in children and adolescents with an acquired brain injury. Brain Inj 2016; 30: 1692–8.
100. Baque E, Barber L, Sakzewski L, Boyd RN. Randomized controlled trial of web-based multimodal therapy for children with acquired brain injury to improve gross motor capacity and performance. Clin Rehabil 2017; 31: 722–32.
101. Belfort MB, Kuban KC, O'Shea TM, et al. Weight status in the first 2 years of life and neurodevelopmental impairment in extremely low gestational age newborns. J Pediatr 2015; 168: 30–5.
102. Brush LN, Monagle PT, Mackay MT, Gordon AL. Hypertension at time of diagnosis and long-term outcome after childhood ischemic stroke. Neurology 2013; 80: 1225–30.
103. de Bruïne FT, Steggerda SJ, van den Berg-Huysmans AA, et al. Prognostic value of gradient echo T2* sequences for brain MR imaging in preterm infants. Pediatr Radiol 2014; 44: 305–12.
104. Dijkhuizen A, Hilgenkamp TI, Krijnen WP, van der Schans CP, Waninge A. The impact of visual impairment on the ability to perform activities of daily living for persons with severe/profound intellectual disability. Res Dev Disabil 2016; 48: 35–42.
105. Dijkhuizen A, Krijnen WP, van der Schans CP, Waninge A. Validity of the modified Berg Balance Scale in adults with intellectual and visual disabilities. Res Dev Disabil 2017; 62: 58–68.
106. Fukuda M, Kawabe M, Takehara M, et al. Carnitine deficiency: risk factors and incidence in children with epilepsy. Brain Dev 2015; 37: 790–6.
107. Herber-Jonat S, Streiftau S, Knauss E, et al. Long-term outcome at age 7–10 years after extreme prematurity: a prospective, two centre cohort study of children born before 25 completed weeks of gestation (1999–2003). J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2014; 27: 1620–6.
108. Kim SH, Joseph RM, Frazier JA, et al. Predictive validity of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) born very preterm. J Pediatr 2016; 178: 101–7.
109. Kuban KC, Joseph RM, O'Shea TM, et al. Girls and boys born before 28 weeks gestation: risks of cognitive, behavioral, and neurologic outcomes at age 10 years. J Pediatr 2016; 173: 69–75.
110. Leviton A, Allred EN, Kuban KC, et al. Brain disorders associated with corticotropin-releasing hormone expression in the placenta among children born before the 28th week of gestation. Acta Paediatr 2016; 105: e7–11.
111. Leviton A, Allred EN, Kuban KC, et al. The development of extremely preterm infants born to women who had genitourinary infections during pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol 2016; 183: 28–35.
112. Lumsden DE, Kaminska M, Tomlin S, Lin JP. Medication use in childhood dystonia. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2016; 20: 625–9.
113. Meyers JM, Bann CM, Stoll BJ, et al. Neurodevelopmental outcomes in postnatal growth-restricted preterm infants with postnatal head-sparing. J Perinatol 2016; 36: 1116–21.
114. Sehgal R, Gulati S, Sapra S, Tripathi M, Pandey RM, Kabra M. Prognostic utility of clinical epilepsy severity score versus pretreatment hypsarrhythmia scoring in children with west syndrome. Clin EEG Neurosci 2017; 48: 280–7.
115. Shankaran S, Laptook AR, McDonald SA, et al. Acute perinatal sentinel events, neonatal brain injury pattern, and outcome of infants undergoing a trial of hypothermia for neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. J Pediatr 2017; 180: 275–8.
116. Tailor V, Glaze S, Unwin H, Bowman R, Thompson G, Dahlmann-Noor A. Saccadic vector optokinetic perimetry in children with neurodisability or isolated visual pathway lesions: observational cohort study. Br J Opthamol 2016; 100: 1427–32.
117. 2 targets: the PHELBI follow-up study. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2017; 102: F376–82.
118. Tustin K, Gimeno H, Morton E, Marsden J. Rater reliability and scoring duration of the Quality Function Measure in ambulant children with hyperkinetic movement disorders. Dev Med Child Neurol 2016; 58: 822–8.
119. Yıldız A, Tarakcı D, Hajebrahimi F, Mutluay F. Disabled children's functionality and maternal quality of life and psychological status. Pediatr Int 2016; 58: 1291–6.
120. Getz M, Hutzler Y, Vermeer A. The relationship between aquatic independence and gross motor function in children with neuro-motor impairments. Adapt Phys Activ Q 2006; 23: 339–55.
121. Mann TN, Donald KA, Laughton B, Lamberts RP, Langerak NG. HIV encephalopathy with bilateral lower limb spasticity: upper limb motor function and level of activity and participation. Dev Med Child Neurol 2017; 59: 412–9.
122. Mann TN, Laughton B, Donald KA, Langerak NG. HIV encephalopathy with bilateral lower limb spasticity: gross motor function and antiretroviral therapy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2017; 59: 407–11.
123. Uesugi M, Araki T, Fujii S, Itotani K, Otani Y, Seiichi T. Relationships between gross motor abilities and problematic behaviors of handicapped children in different age groups. J Phys Ther Sci 2014; 26: 1907–9.
124. Effgen SK, McCoy SW, Chiarello LA, Jeffries LM, Starnes C, Bush HM. Outcomes for students receiving school-based physical therapy as measured by the school function assessment. Pediatr Phys Ther 2016; 28: 371–8.
125. Gimeno H, Gordon A, Tustin K, Lin JP. Functional priorities in daily life for children and young people with dystonic movement disorders and their families. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2013; 17: 161–8.
126. Lumsden DE, Gimeno H, Elze M, Tustin K, Kaminska M, Lin JP. Progression to musculoskeletal deformity in childhood dystonia. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2016; 20: 339–45.
127. Bayram E, Topcu Y, Karakaya P, et al. Correlation between motor performance scales, body composition, and anthropometry in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Acta Neurol Belg 2013; 113: 133–7.
128. Bodkin AW, Robinson C, Perales FP. Reliability and validity of the Gross Motor Function Classification System for cerebral palsy. Pediatr Phys Ther 2003; 15: 247–52.
129. Duncan AF, Bann C, Boatman C, et al. Do currently recommended Bayley-III cutoffs overestimate motor impairment in infants born <27 weeks gestation? J Perinatol 2015; 35: 516–21.
130. Matos MA, Barreto R, Quadros V, Penha CE, Acosta AX. Gross Motor Function Classification System in patients with mucopolysaccharidosis. Rev Fac Cien Med Univ Nac Cordoba 2013; 70: 201–6.
131. Steenweg ME, Wolf NI, van Wieringen WN, Barkhof F, van der Knaap MS, Pouwels PJ. Quantitative MRI in hypomyelinating disorders: correlation with motor handicap. Neurology 2016; 87: 752–8.
132. Elze MC, Gimeno H, Tustin K, et al. Burke-Fahn-Marsden dystonia severity, Gross Motor, Manual Ability, and Communication Function Classification scales in childhood hyperkinetic movement disorders including cerebral palsy: a ‘Rosetta Stone’ study. Dev Med Child Neurol 2016; 58: 145–53.
133. Rosenbaum PL, Palisano RJ, Bartlett DJ, Galuppi BE, Russell DJ. Development of the Gross Motor Function Classification System for cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2008; 50: 249–53.
134. Russell DJ, Rosenbaum PL, Cadman DT, Gowland C, Hardy S, Jarvis S. The Gross Motor Function Measure: a means to evaluate the effect of physical therapy. Dev Med Child Neurol 1989; 31: 341–52.
135. Palisano RJ, Walter SD, Russell DJ, et al. Gross motor function of children with Down syndrome: creation of motor growth curves. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2001; 82: 494–500.
136. Kehrer C, Blumenstock G, Raabe C, Krägeloh-Mann I. Development and reliability of a classification system for gross motor function in children with metachromatic leucodystrophy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2011; 53: 156–60.