The impact of socio-economic status on participation and attainment in science

Studies in Science Education

Volumn 45, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 93-129

  Gorard, Stephen ^a   See, Beng Huat ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Post 16 participation; Poverty; Science attainment; Secondary analysis; Socio economic status

Indexed keywords

EID: 85032069656     PISSN: 03057267     EISSN: 19408412     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057260802681821     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. Aikenhead, G. (1995). Cultural assimilation in science classroom: Border crossings and other solutions. Unpublished paper.
2. Airnes, J. (2001). Students’ perceptions of gender segregation in biology. SCRE Newsletter, 69
3. Beaton, A., Martin, M., Mullis, I., Gonzalez, J., Smith, T., & Kelley, D. (1996). Science achievement in the middle school years: IEA’s Third International Mathematics and Science Study. Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College.
4. Becker, G. (1975). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
5. Bell, J. (2001). Patterns of subject uptake and examination entry 1984–1997. Educational Studies, 27(2), 201–219.
6. Berends, M., Lucas, S., Sullivan, T., & Briggs, R. (2005). Examining gaps in maths achievement among racial-ethnic groups, 1972–1992. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, MR-255
7. Bickel, R., & Howley, C. (2003). Elementary math achievement for rural development: Effects of contextual factors intrinsic to the modern world. Working Paper. Report: WP- 15, 58
8. Birnie, J. (1999). Physical geography at the transition to higher education: The effect of prior learning. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 23(1), 49–62.
9. Breakwell, G., & Beardsell, S. (1992). Gender, parental and peer influences upon science attitudes and activities. Public Understanding of Science, 1(2), 183–197.
10. Bricheno, P. (2000, January). Science attitude changes on transition. Paper presented at the ASE Conference, Leeds, UK
11. Burchardt, R., Le Grand, J., & Piachaud, D. (1999). Social exclusion in Britain 1991–1995. Social Policy and Administration, 33(3), 227–244.
12. Burstein, L., Fischer, K.B., & Miller, M.D. (1980). The multilevel effects of background on science achievement: A cross-national comparison. Sociology of Education, 53(4), 215–225.
13. Callender, C. (2003). Attitudes to debt: School leavers and further education students’ attitudes to debt and their impact on participation in higher education. London: Universities UK
14. Campbell, B. (2001). Children’s perceptions of science education at primary and secondary school. In H. Behrendt, H. Dahncke, et al. (Eds.), Research in science education –past, present and future. London: Kluwer Academic.
15. Capron, C., & Duyme, M. (1989). Assessment of effects of socioeconomic status on IQ in a full cross-fostering study. Nature, 158, August 17, 552–553.
16. Cheng, Y., Payne, J., & Witherspoon, S. (1995). Science and mathematics in full-time education after 16: England and Wales, Youth Cohort Study. London: Department of Education and Employment.
17. Cook, M., & Evans, W. (2000). Families or schools? Explaining the convergence in white and Black academic performance. Journal of Labour Economics, 18(4), 729–754.
18. Cotton, K., & Wikelund, K. (1989). Parent involvement in education. School Improvement Research Series (SIRS). Washington DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
19. Crawley, F., & Black, C. (1992). Causal modelling of secondary science students’ intentions to enrol in physics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29(6), 585–599.
20. Croxford, L. (1994). Equal opportunities in the secondary school curriculum in Scotland, 1977–1991. British Educational Research Journal, 20(4), 371–391.
21. Croxford, L. (1997). Participation in science subjects: The effects of the Scottish Curriculum Framework. Research Papers in Education, 12(1), 60–89.
22. Darcy, J. (1994). Gender issues in public examinations. In K. Trew et al. (Eds.), Girls and women in education. Leicester, UK: British Psychology Society.
23. Davies, P., Telhaj, S., Hutton, D., Adnett, N., & Coe, R. (2004, September). The myth of the bog standard secondary school: A school level analysis of students’ choice of optional subjects. Paper presented at BERA, 2004, Manchester, UK
24. Dearing R. (1997). Higher education in the learning society: Report of the committee under the Chairmanship of Sir Ron Dearing. London: Stationery Office.
25. Denholm, J., & Macleod, D. (2003). Prospects for growth in further education. Somerset, UK: Learning and Skills Research Centre
26. Department for Trade and Industry. (1998). Our competitive future: Building the knowledge driven economy (White Paper). London: The Stationery Office.
27. Dhillon, J. (2004). An exploration of adult learners’ perspectives of using learndirect centres as sites of learning. Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 9(1), 147–158.
28. Domovic, V., & Godler, Z. (2005). Educatonal systems’ efficiency evaluation on the basis of student performance: Comparison Finland-Germany. Drustvena Istrazivanja, 14(3), 439–458.
29. Dryfoos, J. (2000). Evaluations of community schools: Findings to date. Hastings-on-Hudson, NY: Coalition for Community Schools
30. Education and Employment Committee. (2001). Higher education access (fourth report, HC 124). London: House of Commons.
31. Eggleston, J. (1977). The sociology of the school curriculum. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
32. Epstein, J., Clark, L., Salinas, K., & Sanders, M. (1997). Involving parents in homework in the middle grades. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University (Phi Delta Kappan Research Bulletin, No. 18)
33. Erebus International. (2005). Review of the recent literature on socio-economic status and learning. Sydney, NSW Department of Education and Training.
34. Ethington, C.A. (1988). Differences among women intending to major in quantitative fields of study. Journal of Educational Research, 81(6), 354–359.
35. European Group for Research on Equity in Educational Systems. (2005). Equity in European educational systems: A set of indicators. European Educational Research Journal, 4(2), 1–151.
36. Feinstein, L., Duckworth, K., & Sabates, R. (2004). A model of inter-generational effects of parental education (research brief RCB01-04). Nottingham, UK: DfES
37. Fischer, C., Hout, M., Jankowski, M., Lucas, S., Swidler, A., & Vos, K. (1996). Inequality by design: Cracking the bell curve myth. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
38. Fitz-Gibbon, C. (1999). Long-term consequences of curriculum choices with particular reference to mathematics and science. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 10(2), 217–252.
39. Forsyth, A., & Furlong, A. (2003). Socio-economic disadvantage and access to higher education. Bristol: Policy Press.
40. Fryer, R. (1997). Learning for the twenty-first century. London: Department of Education and Employment
41. Fuchs T., & Wobmann, L. (2004). What accounts for international differences in student performance? A re-examination using PISA. Empirical Economics, 32(2–3), 433–464.
42. Fullarton, S., Walker, M., Ainley, J., & Hillman, K. (2003). Patterns of participation in year 12. Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and Training Research Report, 33 July. Camberwell, Australia.
43. Gallagher, T., McEwen, A., & Knipe, D. (1997). Science education policy: A survey of the participation of sixth-form students on science and other subjects over a 10-year period, 1985–1995. Research Papers in Education, 12(2), 121–142.
44. Ginsburg, H., & Pappas, S. (2004). SES, ethnic, and gender differences in young children’s informal addition and subtraction: A clinical interview investigation. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 25(2), 171–192.
45. Glover, D., Law, S., & Youngman, A. (2002). Graduateness and employability: Student perceptions of the personal outcomes of university education. Research in Post Compulsory Education, 7, 3
46. Gorard, S. (2000). Education and social justice. Cardiff, Wales: University of Wales Press.
47. Gorard, S. (2005). Where shall we widen it? Higher Education and the age participation rate in Wales. Higher Education Quarterly, 59(1), 3–18.
48. Gorard, S. (2006a). Towards a judgement-based statistical analysis. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 27(1), 67–80.
49. Gorard, S. (2006b). Is there a school mix effect? Educational Review, 58(1), 87–94.
50. Gorard, S. (2006c). Value-added is of little value. Journal of Educational Policy, 21(2), 233–241.
51. Gorard, S., & Cook, T. (2007). Where does good evidence come from? International Journal of Research and Method in Education, 30(3), 307–323.
52. Gorard, S., & Rees, G. (2002). Creating a learning society. Bristol, UK: Policy Press
53. Gorard, S., & See, B.H. (2008). The impact of SES on participation and attainment in science: A review of existing literature. In Royal Society (Ed.), Exploring the relationship between socio-economic status and participation and attainment in science education (pp. 22–29). London: Royal Society.
54. Gorard, S., & Smith, E. (2007). Do barriers get in the way? A review of the determinants of post-16 participation. Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 12(2), 141–158.
55. Gorard, S., Rees, G., & Fevre, R. (1999). Patterns of participation in lifelong learning: Do families make a difference? British Educational Research Journal, 25(4), 517–532.
56. Gorard, S., Rees, G., & Salisbury, J. (2001). The differential attainment of boys and girls at school: Investigating the patterns and their determinants. British Educational Research Journal, 27(2), 125–139.
57. Gorard, S., Taylor, C., & Fitz, J. (2003a). Schools, markets and choice policies. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
58. Gorard, S., Selwyn, N., & Madden, L. (2003b). Logged on to learning? Assessing the impact of technology on participation in lifelong learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 22(3), 281–296.
59. Gorard, S., See, B.H., Smith, E., & White, P. (2006). Teacher supply: The key issues. London: Continuum.
60. Gorard, S., with Adnett, N., May, H., Slack, K., Smith, E., & Thomas, L. (2007). Overcoming barriers to HE. Stoke-on-Trent, UK: Trentham Books.
61. Gorard, S., & See, B.H. (2008). The impact of SES on participation and attainment in science: A sample of existing literature. London: Royal Society.
62. Gorard, S., See, B.H., & Smith, E. (2008). The impact of SES on participation and attainment in science: An analysis of available data. In Royal Society (Ed.), Exploring the relationship between socio-economic status and participation and attainment in science education (pp.10–21). London: Royal Society.
63. Gottfredson, L. (2004). Intelligence: Is it the epidemiologists’ elusive ‘fundamental cause’ of social class differences in health? Electronic version. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 174–199.
64. Grissmer, D., & Flanagan, A. (1998). Exploring rapid score gains in Texas and North Carolina (commissioned paper). Washington, DC: National Education Goals Panel.
65. Grissmer, D., Kirby, S., Berends, M., & Williamson, S. (1994). Student achievement and the changing American family. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, MR-488
66. Haahr, J., with Nielsen, T., Hansen, E., & Jakobsen, S. (2005). Explaining student performance: Evidence from the international PISA, TIMSS and PIRLS surveys. Retrieved August, 2006, from www.danishtechnology.dk
67. Halsey, A., Heath, A., & Ridge, J. (1980). Origins and destinations: Family, class, and education in modern Britain. Oxford: Clarendon.
68. Hand, A., Gambles, J., & Cooper, E. (1994). Individual commitment to learning: Individuals decision-making about lifelong learning. London: Employment Department.
69. Harris, A., & Goodall, J. (2006). Parental involvement in education: An overview of the literature. Retrieved 23 April, 2008, from http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/DCSF-00924-2008BKT-EN.pdf
70. Harrison R. (1993). Disaffection and access. In J. Calder (Ed.), Disaffection and diversity: Overcoming barriers to adult learning. London: Falmer.
71. Harvard, N. (1996). Student attitudes to studying A-level sciences. Public Understanding of Science, 5(4), 321–330.
72. Hedges, L., & Nowell, A. (1998). Are black white differences in test scores narrowing? In C. Jencks & M. Phillips (Eds.), The Black-white test score gap (pp. 254–81). Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution Press.
73. Hedges, L.V., & A. Nowell. (1999). Changes in the black-white gap in achievement test scores: The evidence from nationally representative samples. Sociology of Education, 72, 111–35.
74. Hendley, D., Parkinson, J., Stables, A., & Tanner, H. (1995). Gender differences in student attitudes to the National Curriculum Foundation Subjects of English, maths, science and technology in Key Stage 3 in South Wales. Educational Studies, 21(1), 85–97.
75. Herrnstein, R., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve. New York: Simon and Schuster
76. Higher Education Funding Council for England. (2005). Young participation in higher education. Bristol, UK: Higher Education Funding Council for England.
77. Ho, S., & Willms, J. (1996). Effects of parental involvement on eighth-grade achievement. Sociology of Education, 69(2), 126–141.
78. Hogrebe, M.C., Kyei-Blankson, L., & Zou, L. (2006). Using GIS to examine science and mathematics attainment. Report for the Centre for Inquiry in Science Teaching and Learning (CISTL). St Louis: Washington University.
79. Hoyles, C., Newman, K., & Noss, R. (2001). Changing patterns of transition from school to university mathematics. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 32(6), 829–845.
80. Hramiak, A. (2001, July). Widening participation and ethnic minority women. Annual SCUTREA Conference proceedings, University of East London.
81. Hudson, C. (2005). Widening participation in higher education art and design: Part 2 questionnaire report. Winchester, UK: Council for Higher Education in Art and Design.
82. Jeynes, W. (2005). The effects of parental involvement on the academic achievement of African American Youth. Journal of Negro Education, 74(3), 260–274.
83. Jidesjö, A., & Oscarsson, M. (2004). Students’ attitudes to science and technology: First results from The ROSE-project in Sweden. Paper presented at the XI International Organization for Science and Technology Education Symposium: Science and Technology Education for a Diverse World, Lublin, Poland. Retrieved August 2007, from www.ils.uio.no/english/rose/network/countries/sweden/swe-jidesjoe-ioste2004.pdf
84. Jovanic, J., & King, S. (1998). Boys and girls in the performance-based science classroom: Who’s doing the performing? American Educational Research Journal, 35(3), 477–496.
85. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (Eds.). (2000). Choices, values and frames. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
86. Kalmijn, M. (1994). Mother’s occupational status and children’s schooling. American Sociological Review, 59, 257–276.
87. Kennedy, H. (1997). Learning works: Widening participation in further education. Coventry, UK: Further Education Funding Council.
88. Khazzoom, A. (1997). The impact of mothers’ occupational on children’s occupational destinations. Research in Statification and Mobility, 15, 57–89.
89. Khoury, G., & Voss, B. (1985, April). Factors influencing high school students’ science enrollments patterns: Academic abilities, parental influences and attitudes towards science. Paper presented at the 58th Annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, French Lick Springs, IN.
90. Lamb, S. (1997). Gender differences in mathematics participation: An Australian perspective. Educational Studies, 23(1), 105–125.
91. Lara-Cinisomo, S., Pebley, A.R., Vaiana, M.E., Maggio, E., Berends, M., & Lucas, S.R. (2004). A matter of class: Educational achievement reflects family background more than ethnicity or immigration. A RAND review. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
92. Layzer, D. (1974). Heritability analyses of IQ scores: Science or numerology? Science, 183(131), 1259–1266.
93. Lemke, J. (2001). Articulating communities: Socio-cultural perspectives on science education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38, 296–316.
94. Lightbody, P., & Durndell, A. (1996). Gendered career choice: Is sex stereotyping the cause or the consequence. Educational Studies, 22, 133–146.
95. Loury, L. (1995). Letter to the editor. Commentary, 100, 2.
96. Lyons, T. (2004, July). Choosing physical science courses: The importance of cultural and social capital in the enrolment decisions of high achieving students. Paper presented at the International Organisation for Science and Technology Education IOSTE XI Symposium, Lublin, Poland.
97. Ma, X. (1999). Dropping out of advanced mathematics: The effects of parental involvement. Teachers College Record, 101(1), 60–81.
98. Marcon, R. (1999, March). Impact of parent involvement on children’s development and academic performance: A three-cohort study. Paper presented at the Meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Savannah, GA
99. Marks, G. (2007). Are father’s or mother’s socioeconomic characteristics more important influences on student performance? Recent international evidence. Social Indicators Research, 85(2), 293–309.
100. Metcalf, H. (2005). Paying for university: The impact of increasing costs on student employment, debt and satisfaction. National Institute Economic Review, 191, 106–117.
101. Miller-Whitehead, M. (2002). Class size and student science achievement: Not as easy as it sounds. Report: ED470676. 25p.
102. Modood, T. (1993). The number of ethnic minority students in higher education: Some ground for optimism. Oxford Review of Education, 19, 167–182.
103. Moon, N., & Ivins, C. (2004). Parental involvement in children’s education. DfES Research Report RR589. NOP Social and Political. Nottingham, UK: DfES
104. Murphy, C., & Beggs, J. (2001, September). Students’ attitudes, perceptions and understanding of primary science: Comparisons between Northern Irish and English schools. Paper presented at the BERA conference, University of Leeds, UK
105. Murphy, P., & Whitelegg, E. (2006). Girls and physics: Continuing barriers to ‘belonging’. Curriculum Journal, 17(3), 281–305.
106. Mwetundila, P. (2001). Gender and other student level factors influencing the science achievement of 13–14 year old Australian (MA [Ed.] Thesis, Flinders University of South Australia)
107. Nash, R. (2005). Cognitive habitus and collective intelligence. Journal of Education Policy, 20(1), 3–21.
108. National Audit Office. (2002). Widening participation in higher education in England. London: The Stationery Office
109. NFER. (2006). Factors influencing year 9 career choices. Report for The Engineering and Technology Board. Slough, UK: NFER
110. O’Connor, S., Miranda, K., & Beasley, T. (1999, April). The linkages among the home environment and academic self-concepts on achievement of intact and non-intact family structures of American high school students. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada
111. OFSTED. (1995). Science: A review of inspection findings 1993/1994. London: HMSO
112. Okpala, C., Okpala, A., & Smith, F. (2001). Parental involvement, instructional expenditures, family socioeconomic attributes, and student achievement. Journal of Educational Research, 95(2), 110–115.
113. Oliver, J., & Simpson, R. (1988). Influences of attitude toward science, achievement motivation and science self-concept on achievement on science: A longitudinal study. Science Education, 72(2), 143–155.
114. Osborne, J., & Collins, S. (2000). Students’ and parents’ views of the school science curriculum. London: King’s College London.
115. Osborne, J., Simon, S., & Collins, S. (2003). Attitudes towards science: A review of the literature and its implication. International Journal of Science Education, 25(9), 1049–1079.
116. Patel, N. (2006). Perceptions of student ability: Effects on parent involvement in middle school. Doctoral thesis. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 67(3), 183
117. Payne, J. (1998). Routes at sixteen: Trends and choices in the nineties. Research brief No 55. London: DfES
118. Peng, S., & Jaffe, J. (1979). Women who enter male-dominated fields of study in higher education. American Educational Research Journal, 16(3), 285–293.
119. Ponchaud, B. (2001, January). Primary science: Where next? Paper presented at the ASE Conference, Leeds, UK
120. Pong, S. (1997). The school compositional effect of single parenthood on 10th-grade achievement. Sociology of Education, 71(1), 23–42.
121. Pustjens, H., Van de gaer, E., Van Damme, J., & Onghena, P. (2004). Effect of secondary schools on academic choices and on success in higher education. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 15(3/4), 281–311.
122. QCA. (2004). Mathematics 2003–2004: Annual report on curriculum and assessment. London: QCA
123. Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
124. Robinson, P. (1997). Literacry, numeracy and economic performance. London: Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics and Political Science.
125. Rothman, S. (2003, April). The changing influence of socio-economic status on student achievement: Recent evidence from Australia. Paper presented at the Annual meeting of the American Education Research Association, Chicago, IL
126. Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1994). Failing at fairness. New York: Scribner.
127. Schoon, I., Ross, A., & Martin, P. (2007). Science related careers: Aspirations and outcomes in two British cohort studies. Equal Opportunities International, 26(2), 129–143.
128. Schulz, W. (2005, April). Mathematics self-efficacy and student expectations: Results from PISA 2003. Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada.
129. Selwyn, N., Gorard, S., & Furlong, J. (2006). Adult learning in the digital age. London: Routledge.
130. Shaver, A., & Walls, R. (1998). Effect of parent involvement on student reading and mathematics achievement. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 31(2), 90–97.
131. Shuttleworth, I., & Daly, P. (1997). Inequalities in the uptake of science at GCSE: Evidence from Northern Ireland. Research Papers in Education, 12(2), 143–156.
132. Simpson, J. (2003). Mom matters: Maternal influence on the choice of academic major. Sex roles: A Journal of Research, May, 447–460.
133. Smyth, E., & Hannan, C. (2006). School effects and subject choice: The uptake of scientific in Ireland. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 17(3), 303–327.
134. Starkey, P., & Klein, A. (2000). Fostering parental support for children’s mathematical development: An intervention with Head Start families. Early Education and Development, 11(5), 659–680.
135. Taylor, C., & Gorard, S. (2005). Participation in higher education: Wales, Report for independent study into devolution of the student support system: The Rees Review. Cardiff, Wales: National Assembly for Wales.
136. Taylor, P. (1993). Minority ethnic groups and gender access in higher education. New Community, 19, 425–440.
137. Tinklin, T., Croxford, L., Ducklin, A., & Frame, B. (2003). Inclusion: A gender perspective. Policy Futures in Education, 2(4), 640–652.
138. Turkheimer, E., Haley, A., Waldron, M., D’Onofrio, B., & Gottesman I. (2003). Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of IQ of young children. Psychological Science, 14(6), 623–628.
139. Uerz, D., Dekkers, H., & Beguin, A. (2004). Mathematics and language skills and the choice of science subjects in secondary education. Educational Research and Evaluation, 10(2), 163–182.
140. Ulrich, N. (2004). Mature students: Access to and experience of HE part-time foreign language degrees, Aston University. from http://www.aston.ac.uk/prospective-students/wp/research.jsp. Accessed January 2009
141. US Department of Education. (1997). Mathematics equals opportunity. White paper prepared for US Secretary of Education, Richard W. Riley. Report ED415119
142. van Langen, A., Rekers, M., & Dekkers, H. (2006). Sex-related differences in the determinants and process of science and maths choice in pre-university education. International Journal of Science Education, 28(1), 71–94.
143. Walford, G. (2004). No discrimination on the basis of irrelevant qualifications. Cambridge Journal of Education, 34(3), 353–361.
144. Wallace, C. (2005). Science paper: Socio-economic status and intelligence. Retrieved August 2007, from CreightonUniversity.www.icherney.com/Teaching/Courses/Intelligence/Science%20Papers/Erin_Wallace.doc
145. Wang, J., Wildman, L., & Calhoun, G. (1996). The relationship between parental influences and student achievement in seventh grade maths. School Science and Mathematics, 96(8), 395–400.
146. Weinburgh, M. (1995). Gender differences in student attitudes toward science: A meta-analysis of the literature 1970–1991. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32(4), 387–397.
147. Wilson, W. (1987). The truly disadvantaged. Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press.
148. Wobmann, L, (2003). Schooling resources, educational institutions and student performance: The international evidence. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 65(2), 117–170.
149. Woodrow, D. (1996). Cultural inclinations towards studying science and mathematics. New Community, 22, 23–38.
150. Wright, S. (2006). The health of subjects: Evidence from examinations entries. The Nuffied Review of 14–19 education and training. Research Report 5
151. Xie, Y., & Goyette, K. (2003). Social mobility and the educational choices of Asian Americans. Social Science Research, 32(3), 467–498.
152. Yang, Y. (2003). Dimensions of socio-economic status and their relationship to mathematics and science achievement at individual and collective. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 47(1), 21–41.
153. Zill, N. (1994). Understanding why children in stepfamilies have more learning and behaviour problems than children in nuclear families. In A. Booth and J. Dunn (Eds.), Stepfamilies: Who benefits? Who does not? (pp. 97–106). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.