Differential diagnosis of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders

Therapeutic Advances in Neurological Disorders

Volumn 10, Issue 7, 2017, Pages 265-289

  Kim, Sung Min ^a   Kim, Seong Joon ^c   Lee, Haeng Jin ^c   Kuroda, Hiroshi ^d   Palace, Jacqueline ^e   Fujihara, Kazuo ^a,b,c  

^a Seoul National University Hospital   (South Korea)

^b FUKUSHIMA MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

^c Seoul National University   (South Korea)

^d TOHOKU UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (Japan)

^e UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

aquaporin 4 antibody; Devic's disease; differential diagnosis; longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis; multiple sclerosis; myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody; neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders; optic neuritis

Indexed keywords

AQUAPORIN 4 ANTIBODY; MYELIN OLIGODENDROCYTE GLYCOPROTEIN;

ACUTE DISSEMINATED ENCEPHALOMYELITIS; BEHCET DISEASE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM LYMPHOMA; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM TUMOR; CLINICAL FEATURE; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DURAL ARTERIOVENOUS FISTULA; HUMAN; IDIOPATHIC ACUTE TRANSVERSE MYELITIS; IDIOPATHIC OPTIC NEURITIS; IMMUNOASSAY; INFLAMMATORY DISEASE; LEBER HEREDITARY OPTIC NEUROPATHY; LYMPHOMA; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; MYELITIS; MYELOOPTIC NEUROPATHY; PATHOGENESIS; PHENOTYPE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; SARCOIDOSIS; SEROLOGY; SJOEGREN SYNDROME; SPINAL DURAL ARTERIOVENOUS FISTULA; SYPHILIS; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS;

EID: 85020879129     PISSN: 17562856     EISSN: 17562864     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1756285617709723     Document Type: Review

References (181)

1. Wingerchuk DM, Banwell B, Bennett JL, et al. International consensus diagnostic criteria for neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Neurology 2015; 85: 177-189.
2. Flanagan E, Cabre P, Weinshenker B, et al. Epidemiology of aquaporin-4 autoimmunity and neuromyelitis optica spectrum. Ann Neurol. Epub ahead of print 17 2016. DOI: 10.1002/ana.24617.
3. Wingerchuk D,. Neuromyelitis optica: effect of gender. J Neurol Sci 2009; 286: 18-23.
4. Kitley J, Leite M, Nakashima I, et al. Prognostic factors and disease course in aquaporin-4 antibody-positive patients with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder from the United Kingdom and Japan. Brain 2012; 135: 1834-1849.
5. Kim SM, Waters P, Woodhall M, et al. Gender effect on neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder with aquaporin4-immunoglobulin G. Mult Scler. Epub ahead of print 19 2016. DOI: 10.1177/1352458516674366.
6. Kim SM, Waters P, Vincent A, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid/serum gradient of IgG is associated with disability at acute attacks of neuromyelitis optica. J Neurol 2011; 258: 2176-2180.
7. Lennon VA, Wingerchuk DM, Kryzer TJ, et al. A serum autoantibody marker of neuromyelitis optica: distinction from multiple sclerosis. Lancet 2004; 364: 2106-2112.
8. Wingerchuk D, Lennon V, Lucchinetti C, et al. The spectrum of neuromyelitis optica. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6: 805-815.
9. Canellas AR, Gols AR, Izquierdo JR, et al. Idiopathic inflammatory-demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system. Neuroradiol 2007; 49: 393-409.
10. Trebst C, Raab P, Voss E, et al. Longitudinal extensive transverse myelitis: it's not all neuromyelitis optica. Nat Rev Neurol 2011; 7: 688-698.
11. Pittock S, Lennon V, Bakshi N, et al. Seroprevalence of aquaporin-4-IgG in a northern California population representative cohort of multiple sclerosis. JAMA Neurol 2014; 71: 1433-1436.
12. Waters P, Reindl M, Saiz A, et al. Multicentre comparison of a diagnostic assay: aquaporin-4 antibodies in neuromyelitis optica. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2016; 87: 1005-1015.
13. Waters PJ, Pittock SJ, Bennett JL, et al. Evaluation of aquaporin-4 antibody assays. Clin Exp Neuroimmunol 2014; 5: 290-303.
14. Kim SM, Waters P, Woodhall M, et al. Utility of aquaporin-4 antibody assay in patients with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Mult Scler 2013; 19: 1060-1067.
15. Sato D, Callegaro D, Lana-Peixoto M, et al. Seronegative neuromyelitis optica spectrum: the challenges on disease definition and pathogenesis. Arq Neuro-Psiquiatr 2014; 72: 445-450.
16. Devic E,. Myélite subaiguë compliquée de névrite optique. Bull Méd 1894; 8: 1033-1034.
17. Wingerchuk DM, Hogancamp WF, O'Brien PC, et al. The clinical course of neuromyelitis optica (Devic's syndrome). Neurology 1999; 53: 1107-1114.
18. Lennon VA, Kryzer TJ, Pittock SJ, et al. IgG marker of optic-spinal multiple sclerosis binds to the aquaporin-4 water channel. J Exp Med 2005; 202: 473-477.
19. Pittock S, Weinshenker B, Lucchinetti C, et al. Neuromyelitis optica brain lesions localized at sites of high aquaporin 4 expression. Arch Neurol 2006; 63: 964-968.
20. Wingerchuk DM, Lennon VA, Pittock SJ, et al. Revised diagnostic criteria for neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 2006; 66: 1485-1489.
21. Jarius S, Wildemann B,. Aquaporin-4 antibodies (NMO-IgG) as a serological marker of neuromyelitis optica: a critical review of the literature. Brain Pathol 2013; 23: 661-683.
22. Waters P, McKeon A, Leite M, et al. Serologic diagnosis of NMO: a multicenter comparison of aquaporin-4-IgG assays. Neurology 2012; 78: 665-671.
23. Yang J, Kim SM, Kim YJ, et al. Accuracy of the fluorescence-activated cell sorting assay for the aquaporin-4 antibody (AQP4-Ab): comparison with the commercial AQP4-Ab assay kit. PLoS One 2016; 11: e0162900.
24. Jiao Y, Fryer JP, Lennon VA, et al. Updated estimate of AQP4-IgG serostatus and disability outcome in neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 2013; 81: 1197-1204.
25. Hoftberger R, Sabater L, Marignier R, et al. An optimized immunohistochemistry technique improves NMO-IgG detection: study comparison with cell-based assays. PLoS One 2013; 8: e79083.
26. Kim W, Lee J, Li X, et al. Quantitative measurement of anti-aquaporin-4 antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using purified recombinant human aquaporin-4. Mult Scler 2012; 18: 578-586.
27. Takahashi T, Fujihara K, Nakashima I, et al. Anti-aquaporin-4 antibody is involved in the pathogenesis of NMO: a study on antibody titre. Brain 2007; 130: 1235-1243.
28. Fujihara K, Sato DK,. AQP4 antibody serostatus: is its luster being lost in the management and pathogenesis of NMO? Neurology 2013; 81: 1186-1188.
29. Marignier R, Bernard-Valnet R, Giraudon P, et al. Aquaporin-4 antibody-negative neuromyelitis optica: distinct assay sensitivity-dependent entity. Neurology. 2013; 80: 2194-2200.
30. Cohen M, De Sèze J, Marignier R, et al. False positivity of anti aquaporin-4 antibodies in natalizumab-treated patients. Mult Scler 2016; 22: 1231-1234.
31. Compston A, Wekerle H, McDonald I,. Chapter 5 The origin of multiple sclerosis: a synthesis. In: Compston A, Confavreux C, Lassmann H, et al. (eds) McAlpine's Multiple Sclerosis, 4th ed. 2006. Edingburgh: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, pp. 273-284.
32. Wingerchuk D, Pittock S, Lucchinetti C, et al. A secondary progressive clinical course is uncommon in neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 2007; 68: 603-605.
33. Palace J, Leite M, Nairne A, et al. Interferon Beta treatment in neuromyelitis optica: increase in relapses and aquaporin 4 antibody titers. Arch Neurol 2010; 67: 1016-1017.
34. Shimizu J, Hatanaka Y, Hasegawa M, et al. IFNβ-1b may severely exacerbate Japanese optic-spinal MS in neuromyelitis optica spectrum. Neurology 2010; 75: 1423-1427.
35. Min J, Kim B, Lee K,. Development of extensive brain lesions following fingolimod (FTY720) treatment in a patient with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. Mult Scler 2012; 18: 113-115.
36. Kleiter I, Hellwig K, Berthele A, et al. Failure of natalizumab to prevent relapses in neuromyelitis optica. Arch Neurol 2012; 69: 239-245.
37. Barnett M, Prineas J, Buckland M, et al. Massive astrocyte destruction in neuromyelitis optica despite natalizumab therapy. Mult Scler 2012; 18: 108-112.
38. Gelfand JM, Cotter J, Klingman J, et al. Massive CNS monocytic infiltration at autopsy in an alemtuzumab-treated patient with NMO. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2014; 1: e34.
39. Jarius S, Wildemann B, Paul F,. Neuromyelitis optica: clinical features, immunopathogenesis and treatment. Clin Exp Immunol 2014; 176: 149-164.
40. Asgari N, Lillevang S, Skejoe H, et al. A population-based study of neuromyelitis optica in Caucasians. Neurology 2011; 76: 1589-1595.
41. Bentzen J, Flachs E, Stenager E, et al. Prevalence of multiple sclerosis in Denmark 1950-2005. Mult Scler 2010; 16: 520-525.
42. Mayr W, Pittock S, McClelland R, et al. Incidence and prevalence of multiple sclerosis in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1985-2000. Neurology 2003; 61: 1373-1377.
43. Cossburn M, Tackley G, Baker K, et al. The prevalence of neuromyelitis optica in South East Wales. Eur J Neurol 2012; 19: 655-659.
44. Mikaeloff Y, Caridade G, Husson B, et al.Neuropediatric KIDSEP Study Group of the French Neuropediatric Society. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis cohort study: prognostic factors for relapse. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2007; 11: 90-95.
45. Ochi H, Fujihara K,. Demyelinating diseases in Asia. Curr Opin Neurol 2016; 29: 222-228.
46. Miyamoto K,. Epidemiology of neuromyelitis optica. Nihon Rinsho 2015; 73 (Suppl. 7): 260-264.
47. Kim S, Kim W, Li X, et al. Clinical spectrum of CNS aquaporin-4 autoimmunity. Neurology 2012; 78: 1179-1185.
48. Koch-Henriksen N, Sorensen PS,. The changing demographic pattern of multiple sclerosis epidemiology. Lancet Neurol 2010; 9: 520-532.
49. Wingerchuk DM, Lucchinetti CF,. Comparative immunopathogenesis of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, neuromyelitis optica, and multiple sclerosis. Curr Opin Neurol 2007; 20: 343-350.
50. Nakajima H, Hosokawa T, Sugino M, et al. Visual field defects of optic neuritis in neuromyelitis optica compared with multiple sclerosis. BMC Neurol 2010; 10: 45.
51. Merle H, Olindo S, Bonnan M, et al. Natural history of the visual impairment of relapsing neuromyelitis optica. Ophthalmology 2007; 114: 810-815.
52. Wingerchuk DM,. Neuromyelitis optica: current concepts. Front Biosci 2004; 9: 834-840.
53. Kim SM, Go MJ, Sung JJ, et al. Painful tonic spasm in neuromyelitis optica: incidence, diagnostic utility, and clinical characteristics. Arch Neurol 2012; 69: 1026-1031.
54. Apiwattanakul M, Popescu B, Matiello M, et al. Intractable vomiting as the initial presentation of neuromyelitis optica. Ann Neurol 2010; 68: 757-761.
55. Misu T, Fujihara K, Nakashima I, et al. Intractable hiccup and nausea with periaqueductal lesions in neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 2005; 65: 1479-1482.
56. Banwell B, Tenembaum S, Lennon V, et al. Neuromyelitis optica-IgG in childhood inflammatory demyelinating CNS disorders. Neurology 2008; 70: 344-352.
57. Kim HJ, Paul F, Lana-Peixoto MA, et al. MRI characteristics of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder: an international update. Neurology 2015; 84: 1165-1173.
58. Yonezu T, Ito S, Mori M, et al. "Bright spotty lesions" on spinal magnetic resonance imaging differentiate neuromyelitis optica from multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler 2014; 20: 331-337.
59. Ito S, Mori M, Makino T, et al. "Cloud-like enhancement" is a magnetic resonance imaging abnormality specific to neuromyelitis optica. Ann Neurol 2009; 66: 425-428.
60. Nakamura M, Misu T, Fujihara K, et al. Occurrence of acute large and edematous callosal lesions in neuromyelitis optica. Mult Scler 2009; 15: 695-700.
61. Matthews L, Marasco R, Jenkinson M, et al. Distinction of seropositive NMO spectrum disorder and MS brain lesion distribution. Neurology 2013; 80: 1330-1337.
62. Kim SM, Kim JS, Heo YE, et al. Cortical oscillopsia without nystagmus, an isolated symptom of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder with anti-aquaporin 4 antibody. Mult Scler 2012; 18: 244-247.
63. Magana SM, Matiello M, Pittock SJ, et al. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Neurology 2009; 72: 712-717.
64. Pittock SJ, Lennon VA, Krecke K, et al. Brain abnormalities in neuromyelitis optica. Arch Neurol 2006; 63: 390-396.
65. Calabrese M, Oh M, Favaretto A, et al. No MRI evidence of cortical lesions in neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 2012; 79: 1671-1676.
66. Storoni M, Davagnanam I, Radon M, et al. Distinguishing optic neuritis in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disease from multiple sclerosis: a novel magnetic resonance imaging scoring system. J Neuroophthalmol 2013; 33: 123-127.
67. Lim Y, Pyun S, Lim H, et al. First-ever optic neuritis: distinguishing subsequent neuromyelitis optica from multiple sclerosis. Neurol Sci 2014; 35: 781-783.
68. Khanna S, Sharma A, Huecker J, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of optic neuritis in patients with neuromyelitis optica versus multiple sclerosis. J Neuroophthalmol 2012; 32: 216.
69. Liu Y, Wang J, Daams M, et al. Differential patterns of spinal cord and brain atrophy in NMO and MS. Neurology 2015; 84: 1465-1472.
70. Bergamaschi R, Tonietti S, Franciotta D, et al. Oligoclonal bands in Devic's neuromyelitis optica and multiple sclerosis: differences in repeated cerebrospinal fluid examinations. Mult Scler 2004; 10: 2-4.
71. Jarius S, Franciotta D, Bergamaschi R, et al. Polyspecific, antiviral immune response distinguishes multiple sclerosis and neuromyelitis optica. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008; 79: 1134-1136.
72. Schneider E, Zimmermann H, Oberwahrenbrock T, et al. Optical coherence tomography reveals distinct patterns of retinal damage in neuromyelitis optica and multiple sclerosis. PLoS One 2013; 8: e66151.
73. Bennett J, de Sèze J, Lana-Peixoto M, et al. Neuromyelitis optica and multiple sclerosis: seeing differences through optical coherence tomography. Mult Scler 2015; 21: 678-688.
74. Lucchinetti C, Mandler R, McGavern D, et al. A role for humoral mechanisms in the pathogenesis of Devic's neuromyelitis optica. Brain 2002; 125: 1450-1461.
75. Misu T, Fujihara K, Kakita A, et al. Loss of aquaporin 4 in lesions of neuromyelitis optica: distinction from multiple sclerosis. Brain 2007; 130: 1224-1234.
76. Roemer S, Parisi J, Lennon V, et al. Pattern-specific loss of aquaporin-4 immunoreactivity distinguishes neuromyelitis optica from multiple sclerosis. Brain 2007; 130: 1194-1205.
77. Misu T, Hoftberger R, Fujihara K, et al. Presence of six different lesion types suggests diverse mechanisms of tissue injury in neuromyelitis optica. Acta Neuropathol 2013; 125: 815-827.
78. Confavreux C, Vukusic S, Moreau T, et al. Relapses and progression of disability in multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1430-1438.
79. Cree BA, Gourraud P, Oksenberg JR, et al.University of California, San Francisco MS-EPIC Team. Long-term evolution of multiple sclerosis disability in the treatment era. Ann Neurol 2016; 80: 499-510.
80. Cree BA, Khan O, Bourdette D, et al. Clinical characteristics of African Americans vs Caucasian Americans with multiple sclerosis. Neurology 2004; 63: 2039-2045.
81. Scalfari A, Knappertz V, Cutter G, et al. Mortality in patients with multiple sclerosis. Neurology 2013; 81: 184-192.
82. de Sèze J, Debouverie M, Zephir H, et al. Acute fulminant demyelinating disease: a descriptive study of 60 patients. Arch Neurol 2007; 64: 1426-1432.
83. Krupp L, Tardieu M, Amato M, et al. International Pediatric Multiple Sclerosis Study Group criteria for pediatric multiple sclerosis and immune-mediated central nervous system demyelinating disorders: revisions to the 2007 definitions. Mult Scler 2013; 19: 1261-1267.
84. Koelman D, Chahin S, Mar S, et al. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in 228 patients: a retrospective, multicenter US study. Neurology 2016; 86: 2085-2093.
85. Tenembaum S, Chamoles N, Fejerman N,. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: a long-term follow-up study of 84 pediatric patients. Neurology 2002; 59: 1224-1231.
86. Khong PL, Ho HK, Cheng PW, et al. Childhood acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: the role of brain and spinal cord MRI. Pediatr Radiol 2002; 32: 59-62.
87. Dale R, de Sousa C, Chong W, et al. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis in children. Brain 2000; 123: 2407-2422.
88. Zhang L, Wu A, Zhang B, et al. Comparison of deep gray matter lesions on magnetic resonance imaging among adults with acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, multiple sclerosis, and neuromyelitis optica. Mult Scler 2014; 20: 418-423.
89. Hyun J, Jeong I, Joung A, et al. Evaluation of the 2015 diagnostic criteria for neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. Neurology 2016; 86: 1772-1779.
90. Tillema J, Pirko I,. Neuroradiological evaluation of demyelinating disease. Ther Adv Neurol Disord 2013; 6: 249-268.
91. Pohl D, Alper G, Van Haren K, et al. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: updates on an inflammatory CNS syndrome. Neurology 2016; 87: S38-S45.
92. McKeon A, Lennon V, Lotze T, et al. CNS aquaporin-4 autoimmunity in children. Neurology 2008; 71: 93-100.
93. Transverse Myelitis Consortium Working Group. Proposed diagnostic criteria and nosology of acute transverse myelitis. Neurology 2002; 59: 499-505.
94. Sato D, Nakashima I, Takahashi T, et al. Aquaporin-4 antibody-positive cases beyond current diagnostic criteria for NMO spectrum disorders. Neurology 2013; 80: 2210-2216.
95. Flanagan EP, Weinshenker BG, Krecke KN, et al. Short myelitis lesions in aquaporin-4-IgG-positive neuromyelitis optica spectrum. JAMA Neurol 2015; 72: 81-87.
96. Qiu W, Wu JS, Zhang MN, et al. Longitudinally extensive myelopathy in Caucasians: a West Australian study of 26 cases from the Perth Demyelinating Diseases Database. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2010; 81: 209-212.
97. Gajofatto A, Monaco S, Fiorini M, et al. Assessment of outcome predictors in first-episode acute myelitis: a retrospective study of 53 cases. Arch Neurol 2010; 67: 724-730.
98. Kim SM, Waters P, Woodhall M, et al. Characterization of the spectrum of Korean inflammatory demyelinating diseases according to the diagnostic criteria and AQP4-Ab status. BMC Neurol 2014; 14: 93.
99. Kim J, Park Y, Kim S, et al. A case of chronic progressive myelopathy. Mult Scler 2010; 16: 1255-1257.
100. Okai A, Muppidi S, Bagla R, et al. Progressive necrotizing myelopathy: part of the spectrum of neuromyelitis optica? Neurol Res 2006; 28: 354-359.
101. Optic Neuritis Study Group. The clinical profile of optic neuritis: experience of the Optic Neuritis Treatment Trial. Arch Ophthalmol 1991; 109: 1673-1678.
102. Beck R, Cleary P, Backlund J,. The course of visual recovery after optic neuritis: experience of the Optic Neuritis Treatment Trial. Ophthalmology 1994; 101: 1771-1778.
103. Beck R, Cleary P,. Optic neuritis treatment trial: one-year follow-up results. Arch Ophthalmol (Chicago, Ill: 1960). 1993; 111: 773-775.
104. Matiello M, Lennon V, Jacob A, et al. NMO-IgG predicts the outcome of recurrent optic neuritis. Neurology 2008; 70: 2197-2200.
105. Optic Neuritis Study Group. Multiple sclerosis risk after optic neuritis: final optic neuritis treatment trial follow-up. Arch Neurol 2008; 65: 727-732.
106. Kim SM, Woodhall MR, Kim JS, et al. Antibodies to MOG in adults with inflammatory demyelinating disease of the CNS. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2015; 2: e163.
107. Jarius S, Ruprecht K, Kleiter I, et al. MOG-IgG in NMO and related disorders: a multicenter study of 50 patients. Part 1: frequency, syndrome specificity, influence of disease activity, long-term course, association with AQP4-IgG, and origin. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13: 279.
108. Petzold A, Wattjes M, Costello F, et al. The investigation of acute optic neuritis: a review and proposed protocol. Nat Rev Neurol 2014; 10: 447-458.
109. Pham-Dinh D, Mattei M, Nussbaum J, et al. Myelin/oligodendrocyte glycoprotein is a member of a subset of the immunoglobulin superfamily encoded within the major histocompatibility complex. P Natl Acad Sci USA. 1993; 90: 7990-7994.
110. Berger T, Rubner P, Schautzer F, et al. Antimyelin antibodies as a predictor of clinically definite multiple sclerosis after a first demyelinating event. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 139-145.
111. Kuhle J, Pohl C, Mehling M, et al. Lack of association between antimyelin antibodies and progression to multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 371-378.
112. O'Connor KC, McLaughlin KA, De Jager PL, et al. Self-antigen tetramers discriminate between myelin autoantibodies to native or denatured protein. Nat Med 2007; 13: 211-217.
113. Waters P, Woodhall M, O'Connor K, et al. MOG cell-based assay detects non-MS patients with inflammatory neurologic disease. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2015; 2: e89.
114. Ramanathan S, Dale R, Brilot F,. Anti-MOG antibody: the history, clinical phenotype, and pathogenicity of a serum biomarker for demyelination. Autoimmun Rev 2016; 15: 307-324.
115. Sato DK, Callegaro D, Lana-Peixoto MA, et al. Distinction between MOG antibody-positive and AQP4 antibody-positive NMO spectrum disorders. Neurology 2014; 82: 474-481.
116. Kitley J, Woodhall M, Waters P, et al. Myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies in adults with a neuromyelitis optica phenotype. Neurology 2012; 79: 1273-1277.
117. Baumann M, Hennes E, Schanda K, et al. Children with multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis and antibodies to the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG): extending the spectrum of MOG antibody positive diseases. Mult Scler 2016; 22: 1821-1829.
118. Jarius S, Kleiter I, Ruprecht K, et al. MOG-IgG in NMO and related disorders: a multicenter study of 50 patients. Part 3: brainstem involvement-frequency, presentation and outcome. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13: 281.
119. Rybicki B, Major M, Popovich J Jr, et al. Racial differences in sarcoidosis incidence: a 5-year study in a health maintenance organization. Am J Epidemiol 1997; 145: 234-241.
120. Stern BJ, Krumholz A, Johns C, et al. Sarcoidosis and its neurological manifestations. Arch Neurol 1985; 42: 909-917.
121. Flanagan EP, Kaufmann TJ, Krecke KN, et al. Discriminating long myelitis of neuromyelitis optica from sarcoidosis. Ann Neurol 2016; 79: 437-447.
122. Kidd DP, Burton BJ, Graham EM, et al. Optic neuropathy associated with systemic sarcoidosis. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2016; 3: e270.
123. Hoitsma E, Faber CG, Drent M, et al. Neurosarcoidosis: a clinical dilemma. Lancet Neurol 2004; 3: 397-407.
124. Wegener S, Linnebank M, Martin R, et al. Clinically isolated neurosarcoidosis: a recommended diagnostic path. Eur Neurol 2015; 73: 71-77.
125. Zajicek J, Scolding N, Foster O, et al. Central nervous system sarcoidosis: diagnosis and management. QJM 1999; 92: 103-117.
126. Bolat S, Berding G, Dengler R, et al. Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) is useful in the diagnosis of neurosarcoidosis. J Neurol Sci 2009; 287: 257-259.
127. Judson M, Costabel U, Drent M, et al. The WASOG Sarcoidosis Organ Assessment Instrument: an update of a previous clinical tool. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 2014; 31: 19-27.
128. Kim SM, Waters P, Vincent A, et al. Sjogren's syndrome myelopathy: spinal cord involvement in Sjogren's syndrome might be a manifestation of neuromyelitis optica. Mult Scler 2009; 15: 1062-1068.
129. Pittock S, Lennon V, de Sèze J, et al. Neuromyelitis optica and non organ-specific autoimmunity. Arch Neurol-Chicago 2008; 65: 78-83.
130. Min J, Kim H, Kim B, et al. Brain abnormalities in Sjogren syndrome with recurrent CNS manifestations: association with neuromyelitis optica. Mult Scler 2009; 15: 1069-1076.
131. Joseph F, Lammie G, Scolding N,. CNS lupus: a study of 41 patients. Neurology 2007; 69: 644-654.
132. Kim S, Kwak K, Jeong I, et al. Cognitive impairment differs between neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder and multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler 2016; 22: 1850-1858.
133. Wingerchuk D, Weinshenker B,. The emerging relationship between neuromyelitis optica and systemic rheumatologic autoimmune disease. Mult Scler 2012; 18: 5-10.
134. Johnson B, Fram E, Johnson P, et al. The variable MR appearance of primary lymphoma of the central nervous system: comparison with histopathologic features. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1997; 18: 563-572.
135. Kumar N, Keegan B, Rodriguez F, et al. Intravascular lymphoma presenting as a longitudinally-extensive myelitis: diagnostic challenges and etiologic clues. J Neurol Sci 2011; 303: 146-149.
136. Flanagan E, O'Neill B, Porter A, et al. Primary intramedullary spinal cord lymphoma. Neurology 2011; 77: 784-791.
137. Scott BJ, Douglas VC, Tihan T, et al. A systematic approach to the diagnosis of suspected central nervous system lymphoma. JAMA Neurol 2013; 70: 311-319.
138. Baehring J, Hochberg F, Betensky R, et al. Immunoglobulin gene rearrangement analysis in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with lymphoproliferative processes. J Neurol Sci 2006; 247: 208-216.
139. Hoang-Xuan K, Bessell E, Bromberg J, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of primary CNS lymphoma in immunocompetent patients: guidelines from the European Association for Neuro-Oncology. Lancet Oncol 2015; 16: e322-e332.
140. Azizlerli G, Köse A, Sarica R, et al. Prevalence of Behçet's disease in Istanbul, Turkey. Int J Dermatol 2003; 42: 803-806.
141. Calamia KT, Wilson FC, Icen M, et al. Epidemiology and clinical characteristics of Behçet's disease in the US: a population-based study. Arthritis Rheum 2009; 61: 600-604.
142. Al-Araji A, Kidd D,. Neuro-Behçet's disease: epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and management. Lancet Neurol 2009; 8: 192-204.
143. Kalra S, Silman A, Akman-Demir G, et al. Diagnosis and management of Neuro-Behçet's disease: international consensus recommendations. J Neurol 2014; 261: 1662-1676.
144. Lee H, Kim DY, Shin H, et al. Spinal cord involvement in Behçet's disease. Mult Scler 2016; 22: 960-963.
145. International Study Group for Behçet's Disease. Criteria for diagnosis of Behçet's disease. Lancet 1990; 5: 1078-1080.
146. Al Sawaf A, Berger J,. Longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis suspected for isolated Neuro-Behçet: a diagnostic conundrum. Mult Scler Relat Disord 2015; 4: 395-399.
147. Akman-Demir G, Serdaroglu P, Tasçi B,. Clinical patterns of neurological involvement in Behçet's disease: evaluation of 200 patients. The Neuro-Behçet Study Group. Brain 1999; 122: 2171-2182.
148. Kanoto M, Hosoya T, Toyoguchi Y, et al. Brain stem and cerebellar atrophy in chronic progressive neuro-Behçet's disease. Eur J Radiol 2013; 82: 146-150.
149. Kikuchi H, Takayama M, Hirohata S,. Quantitative analysis of brainstem atrophy on magnetic resonance imaging in chronic progressive neuro-Behçet's disease. J Neurol Sci 2014; 337: 80-85.
150. Yesilot N, Mutlu M, Gungor O, et al. Clinical characteristics and course of spinal cord involvement in Behçet's disease. Eur J Neurol 2007; 14: 729-737.
151. Van Dijk J, TerBrugge K, Willinsky R, et al. Multidisciplinary management of spinal dural arteriovenous fistulas: clinical presentation and long-term follow-up in 49 patients. Stroke 2002; 33: 1578-1583.
152. Hurst R, Kenyon L, Lavi E, et al. Spinal dural arteriovenous fistula: the pathology of venous hypertensive myelopathy. Neurology 1995; 45: 1309-1313.
153. Jellema K, Canta L, Tijssen C, et al. Spinal dural arteriovenous fistulas: clinical features in 80 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2003; 74: 1438-1440.
154. Gilbertson J, Miller G, Goldman M, et al. Spinal dural arteriovenous fistulas: MR and myelographic findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1995; 16: 2049-2057.
155. Miller TR, Eskey CJ, Mamourian AC,. Absence of abnormal vessels in the subarachnoid space on conventional magnetic resonance imaging in patients with spinal dural arteriovenous fistulas. Neurosurg Focus 2012; 32: E15.
156. Jellema K, Tijssen C, van Gijn J,. Spinal dural arteriovenous fistulas: a congestive myelopathy that initially mimics a peripheral nerve disorder. Brain 2006; 129: 3150-3164.
157. Singh AE, Romanowski B,. Syphilis: review with emphasis on clinical, epidemiologic, and some biologic features. Clin Microbiol Rev 1999; 12: 187-209.
158. Golden MR, Marra CM, Holmes KK,. Update on syphilis: resurgence of an old problem. JAMA. 2003; 290: 1510-1514.
159. Kiss S, Damico FM, Young LH,. Ocular manifestations and treatment of syphilis. Semin Ophthalmol 2005; 20: 161-167.
160. Smith GT, Goldmeier D, Migdal C,. Neurosyphilis with optic neuritis: an update. Postgrad Med J 2006; 82: 36-39.
161. Bandettini di, Poggio M, Primavera A, Capello E, et al. A case of secondary syphilis presenting as optic neuritis. Neurol Sci 2010; 31: 365-367.
162. O'Connell K, Marnane M, McGuigan C,. Bilateral ocular perineuritis as the presenting feature of acute syphilis infection. J Neurol 2012; 259: 191-192.
163. Parker SE, Pula JH,. Neurosyphilis presenting as asymptomatic optic perineuritis. Case Rep Ophthalmol Med 2012; 2012: 621872.
164. Chilver-Stainer L, Fischer U, Hauf M, et al. Syphilitic myelitis: rare, nonspecific, but treatable. Neurology 2009; 72: 673-675.
165. Nakajima H, Furutama D, Kimura F, et al. Herpes simplex virus myelitis: clinical manifestations and diagnosis by the polymerase chain reaction method. Eur Neurol 1998; 39: 163-167.
166. Amaral D, Parreira T, Sampaio M,. Longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis and meningitis due to a rare infectious cause. BMJ Case Rep 2015. DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2015-211761.
167. Tran C, Du Pasquier R, Cavassini M, et al. Neuromyelitis optica following CMV primo-infection. J Intern Med 2007; 261: 500-503.
168. von Glehn F, Jarius S, de Oliveira ACP, et al. Aquaporin-4 antibodies are not related to HTLV-1 associated myelopathy. PLoS One 2012; 7: e39372.
169. Larik A, Chiong Y, Lee L, et al. Longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis associated with dengue fever. BMJ Case Rep 2012. DOI: 10.1136/bcr.12.2011.5378.
170. Meurs L, Labeye D, Declercq I, et al. Acute transverse myelitis as a main manifestation of early stage II neuroborreliosis in two patients. Eur Neurol 2004; 52: 186-188.
171. Jain RS, Kumar S, Tejwani S,. A rare association of tuberculous longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis (LETM) with brain tuberculoma. Springerplus. 2015; 4: 476.
172. Gebhardt A, Buehler R, Wiest R, et al. Mycoplasma pneumonia as a cause of neuromyelitis optica? J Neurol 2008; 255: 1268-1269.
173. Delgado S, Maldonado J, Rammohan K,. CNS demyelinating disorder with mixed features of neuromyelitis optica and multiple sclerosis in HIV-1 infection: case report and literature review. J Neurovirol 2014; 20: 531-537.
174. Machado C, Amorim J, Rocha J, et al. Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder and varicella-zoster infection. J Neurol Sci 2015; 358: 520-521.
175. Heerlein K, Jarius S, Jacobi C, et al. Aquaporin-4 antibody positive longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis following varicella zoster infection. J Neurol Sci 2009; 276: 184-186.
176. Park J, Hwang S, Shin J, et al. A recurrent longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis with Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) antibody after herpes zoster. J Neurol Sci 2013; 334: 69-71.
177. Wallace D, Singh G, Lott M, et al. Mitochondrial DNA mutation associated with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy. Science. 1988; 242: 1427-1430.
178. Man P, Griffiths P, Brown D, et al. The epidemiology of Leber hereditary optic neuropathy in the north east of England. Am J Hum Genet 2003; 72: 333-339.
179. Puomila A, Hämäläinen P, Kivioja S, et al. Epidemiology and penetrance of Leber hereditary optic neuropathy in Finland. Eur J Hum Genet 2007; 15: 1079-1089.
180. Newman N, Biousse V, Newman S, et al. Progression of visual field defects in Leber hereditary optic neuropathy: experience of the LHON treatment trial. Am J Ophthalmol 2006; 141: 1061-1067.
181. McClelland C, Van Stavern G, Tselis A,. Leber hereditary optic neuropathy mimicking neuromyelitis optica. J Neuroophthalmol 2011; 31: 265-268.