The effects of pay-for-performance programs on health, health care use, and processes of care: A systematic review

Annals of Internal Medicine

Volumn 166, Issue 5, 2017, Pages 341-353

  Mendelson, Aaron ^a   Kondo, Karli ^b   Damberg, Cheryl ^c   Low, Allison ^b   Motuapuaka, Makalapua ^b   Freeman, Michele ^b   O'Neil, Maya ^b   Relevo, Rose ^b   Kansagara, Devan ^b  

^a OREGON HEALTH AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b PORTLAND VA MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^c RAND CORPORATION   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMBULATORY CARE; ARTICLE; AUSTRALIA; CANADA; CINAHL; FRANCE; FUNDING; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HEALTH CARE QUALITY; HEALTH CARE UTILIZATION; HEALTH ECONOMICS; HOSPITAL CARE; HOSPITAL PATIENT; HUMAN; INFORMATION RETRIEVAL; MEDLINE; NETHERLANDS; OBSERVATIONAL STUDY; OUTPATIENT; PATIENT CARE; PAY FOR PERFORMANCE PROGRAM; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCINFO; TAIWAN; TREATMENT OUTCOME; UNITED KINGDOM; UNITED STATES; ECONOMICS; HOSPITAL; REIMBURSEMENT; STANDARDS; UTILIZATION;

AMBULATORY CARE; HOSPITALS; HUMANS; OUTCOME AND PROCESS ASSESSMENT (HEALTH CARE); QUALITY OF HEALTH CARE; REIMBURSEMENT, INCENTIVE;

EID: 85019115729     PISSN: 00034819     EISSN: 15393704     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.7326/M16-1881     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Epstein AM, Lee TH, Hamel MB. Paying physicians for high-quality care. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:406-10. [PMID: 14736934]
2. Institute of Medicine. Report Brief. Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century. 2001. Accessed at http: //iom.nationalacademies.org/reports/2001/crossing-the-quality-chasma- new-health-system-for-the-21st-century.aspx on 15 November 2016.
3. Houle SK, McAlister FA, Jackevicius CA, Chuck AW, Tsuyuki RT. Does performance-based remuneration for individual health care practitioners affect patient care?: A systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2012;157:889-99. [PMID: 23247940] doi:10.7326/0003-4819 -157-12-201212180-00009
4. Scott A, Sivey P, Ait Ouakrim D, Willenberg L, Naccarella L, Furler J, et al. The effect of financial incentives on the quality of health care provided by primary care physicians. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011:CD008451.[PMID:21901722]doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008451 .pub2
5. Eijkenaar F, Emmert M, Scheppach M, Schöffski O. Effects of pay for performance in health care: a systematic review of systematic reviews. Health Policy. 2013;110:115-30. [PMID: 23380190] doi:10 .1016/j.healthpol.2013.01.008
6. Gillam SJ, Siriwardena AN, Steel N. Pay-for-performance in the United Kingdom: impact of the Quality and Outcomes Framework: a systematic review. Ann Fam Med. 2012;10:461-8. [PMID: 22966110] doi:10.1370/afm.1377
7. Damberg CL, Sorbero ME, Lovejoy SL, Martsolf GR, Raaen L, Mandel D. Measuring Success in Health Care Value-Based Purchasing Programs: Findings from an Environmental Scan, Literature Review, and Expert Panel Discussions. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation; 2014. Accessed at www.rand.org/pubs/research-reports /RR306.html on 15 November 2016.
8. Evidence-based Synthesis Program Coordinating Center. ESP Reports in Progress. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs; 2014. Accessed at www.hsrd.research.va.gov/publications/esp /in-progress.cfm on 20 August 2016.
9. Treadwell JR, Singh S, Talati R, McPheeters ML, Reston JT. A Framework for "Best Evidence" Approaches in Systematic Reviews. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2011.
10. Wells GA, Shea B, O'Connell D, Peterson J, Welch V, Tugwell P. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of nonrandomised studies in meta-analyses. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Ottawa Hospital Research Institute; 2014. Accessed at www.ohri.ca /programs/clinical-epidemiology/oxford.asp on 15 November 2016.
11. Higgins J, Green S. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Version 5.1.0. Cochrane Collaboration. 2011. Accessed at http://handbook.cochrane.org on 15 November 2016.
12. Berkman N, Lohr K, Ansari M, McDonagh M, Balk E, Whitlock E, et al. Grading the Strength of a Body of Evidence When Assessing Health Care Interventions for the Effective Health Care Program of the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality: An Update. Methods Guide for Comparative Effectiveness Reviews. AHRQ publication no. 13(14)-EHC130-EF. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2013. Accessed at www.effectivehealthcare .ahrq.gov/ehc/products/322/998/MethodsGuideforCERs -Viswanathan-IndividualStudies.pdf on 15 November 2016.
13. Asch DA, Troxel AB, Stewart WF, Sequist TD, Jones JB, Hirsch AG, et al. Effect of financial incentives to physicians, patients, or both on lipid levels: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015;314:1926-35. [PMID: 26547464] doi:10.1001/jama.2015.14850
14. Petersen LA, Simpson K, Pietz K, Urech TH, Hysong SJ, Profit J, et al. Effects of individual physician-level and practice-level financial incentives on hypertension care: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2013; 310:1042-50. [PMID: 24026599] doi:10.1001/jama.2013.276303
15. Petersen LA, Ramos KS, Pietz K, Woodard LD. Impact of a payfor- performance program on care for black patients with hypertension: important answers in the era of the Affordable Care Act. Health Serv Res. 2016. [PMID: 27329344] doi:10.1111/1475-6773.12517
16. Esse T, Serna O, Chitnis A, Johnson M, Fernandez N. Quality compensation programs: are they worth all the hype? A comparison of outcomes within a Medicare Advantage heart failure population. J Manag Care Pharm. 2013;19:317-24. [PMID: 23627577]
17. Friedberg MW, Schneider EC, Rosenthal MB, Volpp KG, Werner RM. Association between participation in a multipayer medical home intervention and changes in quality, utilization, and costs of care. JAMA. 2014;311:815-25. [PMID: 24570245] doi:10.1001/jama.2014 .353
18. Kruse GR, Chang Y, Kelley JH, Linder JA, Einbinder JS, Rigotti NA. Healthcare system effects of pay-for-performance for smoking status documentation. Am J Manag Care. 2013;19:554-61. [PMID: 23919419]
19. Lemak CH, Nahra TA, Cohen GR, Erb ND, Paustian ML, Share D, et al. Michigan's fee-for-value physician incentive program reduces spending and improves quality in primary care. Health Aff (Millwood). 2015;34:645-52. [PMID: 25847648] doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2014 .0426
20. Rosenthal MB, Landrum MB, Robbins JA, Schneider EC. Pay for performance in Medicaid: evidence from three natural experiments. Health Serv Res. 2016;51:1444-66. [PMID: 26708000] doi:10.1111 /1475-6773.12426
21. Rosenthal MB, Alidina S, Friedberg MW, Singer SJ, Eastman D, Li Z, et al. A difference-in-difference analysis of changes in quality, utilization and cost following the Colorado Multi-payer Patient- Centered Medical Home Pilot. J Gen Intern Med. 2016;31:289-96. [PMID: 26450279] doi:10.1007/s11606-015-3521-1
22. Share DA, Mason MH. Michigan's Physician Group Incentive Program offers a regional model for incremental 'fee for value' payment reform. Health Aff (Millwood). 2012;31:1993-2001. [PMID: 22949448] doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2012.0328
23. Young GJ, Beckman H, Baker E. Financial incentives, professional values and performance: a study of pay-for-performance in a professional organization. J Organ Behav. 2012;33:964-83.
24. Torchiana DF, Colton DG, Rao SK, Lenz SK, Meyer GS, Ferris TG. Massachusetts General Physicians Organization's quality incentive program produces encouraging results. Health Aff (Millwood). 2013; 32:1748-56. [PMID: 24101064] doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2013.0377
25. Alshamsan R, Lee JT, Majeed A, Netuveli G, Millett C. Effect of a UK pay-for-performance program on ethnic disparities in diabetes outcomes: interrupted time series analysis. Ann Fam Med. 2012;10: 228-34. [PMID: 22585887] doi:10.1370/afm.1335
26. Arrowsmith ME, Majeed A, Lee JT, Saxena S. Impact of pay for performance on prescribing of long-acting reversible contraception in primary care: an interrupted time series study. PLoS One. 2014;9: e92205. [PMID: 24694949] doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0092205
27. Gallagher N, Cardwell C, Hughes C, O'Reilly D. Increase in the pharmacological management of type 2 diabetes with pay-forperformance in primary care in the UK. Diabet Med. 2015;32:62-8. [PMID: 25185888] doi:10.1111/dme.12575
28. Kendrick T, Stuart B, Newell C, Geraghty AW, Moore M. Did NICE guidelines and the Quality Outcomes Framework change GP antidepressant prescribing in England? Observational study with time trend analyses 2003-2013. J Affect Disord. 2015;186:171-7. [PMID: 26241666] doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.06.052
29. Kontopantelis E, Reeves D, Valderas JM, Campbell S, Doran T. Recorded quality of primary care for patients with diabetes in England before and after the introduction of a financial incentive scheme: a longitudinal observational study. BMJ Qual Saf. 2013;22: 53-64. [PMID: 22918988] doi:10.1136/bmjqs-2012-001033
30. MacBride-Stewart SP, Elton R, Walley T. Do quality incentives change prescribing patterns in primary care? An observational study in Scotland. Fam Pract. 2008;25:27-32. [PMID: 18245796] doi:10 .1093/fampra/cmm074
31. McLintock K, Russell AM, Alderson SL, West R, House A, Westerman K, et al. The effects of financial incentives for case finding for depression in patients with diabetes and coronary heart disease: interrupted time series analysis. BMJ Open. 2014;4:e005178. [PMID: 25142262] doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005178
32. Vamos EP, Pape UJ, Bottle A, Hamilton FL, Curcin V, Ng A, et al. Association of practice size and pay-for-performance incentives with the quality of diabetes management in primary care. CMAJ. 2011; 183:E809-16. [PMID: 21810950] doi:10.1503/cmaj.101187
33. Doran T, Kontopantelis E, Valderas JM, Campbell S, Roland M, Salisbury C, et al. Effect of financial incentives on incentivised and non-incentivised clinical activities: longitudinal analysis of data from the UK Quality and Outcomes Framework. BMJ. 2011;342:d3590. [PMID: 21712336] doi:10.1136/bmj.d3590
34. Harrison MJ, Dusheiko M, Sutton M, Gravelle H, Doran T, Roland M. Effect of a national primary care pay for performance scheme on emergency hospital admissions for ambulatory care sensitive conditions: controlled longitudinal study. BMJ. 2014;349:g6423. [PMID: 25389120] doi:10.1136/bmj.g6423
35. Karunaratne K, Stevens P, Irving J, Hobbs H, Kilbride H, Kingston R, et al. The impact of pay for performance on the control of blood pressure in people with chronic kidney disease stage 3-5. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2013;28:2107-16. [PMID: 23658247] doi:10.1093 /ndt/gft093
36. Sutton M, Elder R, Guthrie B, Watt G. Record rewards: the effects of targeted quality incentives on the recording of risk factors by primary care providers. Health Econ. 2010;19:1-13. [PMID: 19206084] doi:10.1002/hec.1440
37. Calvert M, Shankar A, McManus RJ, Lester H, Freemantle N. Effect of the Quality and Outcomes Framework on diabetes care in the United Kingdom: retrospective cohort study. BMJ. 2009;338:b1870. [PMID: 19474024] doi:10.1136/bmj.b1870
38. Hamilton FL, Laverty AA, Huckvale K, Car J, Majeed A, Millett C. Financial incentives and inequalities in smoking cessation interventions in primary care: before-and-after study. Nicotine Tob Res. 2016;18:341-50. [PMID: 25995158] doi:10.1093/ntr/ntv107
39. Kontopantelis E, Springate DA, Ashworth M, Webb RT, Buchan IE, Doran T. Investigating the relationship between quality of primary care and premature mortality in England: a spatial whole-population study. BMJ. 2015;350:h904. [PMID: 25733592] doi:10.1136/bmj .h904
40. Millett C, Bottle A, Ng A, Curcin V, Molokhia M, Saxena S, et al. Pay for performance and the quality of diabetes management in individuals with and without co-morbid medical conditions. J R Soc Med. 2009;102:369-77. [PMID: 19734534] doi:10.1258/jrsm.2009 .090171
41. Murray J, Saxena S, Millett C, Curcin V, de Lusignan S, Majeed A. Reductions in risk factors for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease by ethnic group in south-west London: 10-year longitudinal study (1998-2007). Fam Pract. 2010;27:430-8. [PMID: 20538744] doi: 10.1093/fampra/cmq030
42. Norbury M, Fawkes N, Guthrie B. Impact of the GP contract on inequalities associated with influenza immunisation: a retrospective population-database analysis. Br J Gen Pract. 2011;61:e379-85. [PMID: 21722444] doi:10.3399/bjgp11X583146
43. Simpson CR, Hannaford PC, Ritchie LD, Sheikh A, Williams D. Impact of the pay-for-performance contract and the management of hypertension in Scottish primary care: a 6-year population-based repeated cross-sectional study. Br J Gen Pract. 2011;61:e443-51. [PMID: 21722469] doi:10.3399/bjgp11X583407
44. Smith CJ, Gribbin J, Challen KB, Hubbard RB. The impact of the 2004 NICE guideline and 2003 General Medical Services contract on COPD in primary care in the UK. QJM. 2008;101:145-53. [PMID: 18180254] doi:10.1093/qjmed/hcm155
45. Szatkowski L, McNeill A, Lewis S, Coleman T. A comparison of patient recall of smoking cessation advice with advice recorded in electronic medical records. BMC Public Health. 2011;11:291. [PMID: 21569283] doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-291
46. Taggar JS, Coleman T, Lewis S, Szatkowski L. The impact of the Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF) on the recording of smoking targets in primary care medical records: cross-sectional analyses from The Health Improvement Network (THIN) database. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:329. [PMID: 22559290] doi:10.1186/1471-2458- 12-329
47. Tahrani AA, McCarthy M, Godson J, Taylor S, Slater H, Capps N, et al. Diabetes care and the new GMS contract: the evidence for a whole county. Br J Gen Pract. 2007;57:483-5. [PMID: 17550674]
48. Vaghela P, Ashworth M, Schofield P, Gulliford MC. Population intermediate outcomes of diabetes under pay-for-performance incentives in England from 2004 to 2008. Diabetes Care. 2009;32: 427-9. [PMID: 19106379] doi:10.2337/dc08-1999
49. Mason T, Sutton M, Whittaker W, McSweeney T, Millar T, Donmall M, et al. The impact of paying treatment providers for outcomes: difference-in-differences analysis of the 'payment by results for drugs recovery' pilot. Addiction. 2015;110:1120-8. [PMID: 26058447] doi:10.1111/add.12920
50. Kalwij S, French S, Mugezi R, Baraitser P. Using educational outreach and a financial incentive to increase general practices' contribution to chlamydia screening in South-East London 2003-2011. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:802. [PMID: 22984897] doi:10 .1186/1471-2458-12-802
51. Chang RE, Lin SP, Aron DC. A pay-for-performance program in Taiwan improved care for some diabetes patients, but doctors may have excluded sicker ones. Health Aff (Millwood). 2012;31:93-102. [PMID: 22232099] doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2010.0402
52. Chen YC, Lee CT, Lin BJ, Chang YY, Shi HY. Impact of pay-forperformance on mortality in diabetes patients in Taiwan: a population-based study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95:e4197. [PMID: 27399144] doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000004197
53. Chen CC, Cheng SH. Does pay-for-performance benefit patients with multiple chronic conditions? Evidence from a universal coverage health care system. Health Policy Plan. 2016;31:83-90. [PMID: 25944704] doi:10.1093/heapol/czv024
54. Cheng SH, Lee TT, Chen CC. A longitudinal examination of a pay-for-performance program for diabetes care: evidence from a natural experiment. Med Care. 2012;50:109-16. [PMID: 22249920] doi:10.1097/MLR.0b013e31822d5d36
55. Hsieh HM, Tsai SL, Shin SJ, Mau LW, Chiu HC. Cost-effectiveness of diabetes pay-for-performance incentive designs. Med Care. 2015; 53:106-15. [PMID: 25397966] doi:10.1097/MLR.0000000000000264
56. Hsieh HM, Lin TH, Lee IC, Huang CJ, Shin SJ, Chiu HC. The association between participation in a pay-for-performance program and macrovascular complications in patients with type 2 diabetes in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based cohort study. Prev Med. 2016;85:53-9. [PMID: 26740347] doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.12.013
57. Liao PJ, Lin TY, Wang TC, Ting MK, Wu IW, Huang HT, et al. Long-term and interactive effects of pay-for-performance interventions among diabetic nephropathy patients at the early chronic kidney disease stage. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95:e3282. [PMID: 27057892] doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000003282
58. Lee TT, Cheng SH, Chen CC, Lai MS. A pay-for-performance program for diabetes care in Taiwan: a preliminary assessment. Am J Manag Care. 2010;16:65-9. [PMID: 20148607]
59. Tan EC, Pwu RF, Chen DR, Yang MC. Is a diabetes pay-forperformance program cost-effective under the National Health Insurance in Taiwan? Qual Life Res. 2014;23:687-96. [PMID: 23975377] doi:10.1007/s11136-013-0502-x
60. Lee CY, Chi MJ, Yang SL, Lo HY, Cheng SH. Using financial incentives to improve the care of tuberculosis patients. Am J Manag Care. 2015;21:e35-42. [PMID: 25880266]
61. Li YH, Tsai WC, Khan M, Yang WT, Lee TF, Wu YC, et al. The effects of pay-for-performance on tuberculosis treatment in Taiwan. Health Policy Plan. 2010;25:334-41. [PMID: 20207703] doi:10.1093/heapol/czq006
62. Chen HJ, Huang N, Chen LS, Chou YJ, Li CP, Wu CY, et al. Does pay-for-performance program increase providers adherence to guidelines for managing hepatitis B and hepatitis C virus infection in Taiwan? PLoS One. 2016;11:e0161002. [PMID: 27517172] doi:10 .1371/journal.pone.0161002
63. Martens JD, Werkhoven MJ, Severens JL, Winkens RA. Effects of a behaviour independent financial incentive on prescribing behaviour of general practitioners. J Eval Clin Pract. 2007;13:369-73. [PMID: 17518801]
64. Pechlivanoglou P, Wieringa JE, de Jager T, Postma MJ. The effect of financial and educational incentives on rational prescribing. A state-space approach. Health Econ. 2015;24:439-53. [PMID: 24519732] doi:10.1002/hec.3030
65. Kirschner K, Braspenning J, Akkermans RP, Jacobs JE, Grol R. Assessment of a pay-for-performance program in primary care designed by target users. Fam Pract. 2013;30:161-71. [PMID: 22997223] doi:10.1093/fampra/cms055
66. Kiran T, Wilton AS, Moineddin R, Paszat L, Glazier RH. Effect of payment incentives on cancer screening in Ontario primary care. Ann Fam Med. 2014;12:317-23. [PMID: 25024239] doi:10.1370/afm .1664
67. Li J, Hurley J, DeCicca P, Buckley G. Physician response to payfor- performance: evidence from a natural experiment. Health Econ. 2014;23:962-78. [PMID: 23861240] doi:10.1002/hec.2971
68. Michel-Lepage A, Ventelou B. The true impact of the French pay-for-performance program on physicians' benzodiazepines prescription behavior. Eur J Health Econ. 2016;17:723-32. [PMID: 26304210] doi:10.1007/s10198-015-0717-6
69. Sicsic J, Franc C. Impact assessment of a pay-for-performance program on breast cancer screening in France using micro data. Eur J Health Econ. 2016. [PMID: 27329654]
70. Rat C, Penhouet G, Gaultier A, Chaslerie A, Pivette J, Nguyen JM, et al. Did the new French pay-for-performance system modify benzodiazepine prescribing practices? BMC Health Serv Res. 2014; 14:301. [PMID: 25011548] doi:10.1186/1472-6963-14-301
71. Greene J. An examination of pay-for-performance in general practice in Australia. Health Serv Res. 2013;48:1415-32. [PMID: 23350933] doi:10.1111/1475-6773.12033
72. Zuckerman RB, Sheingold SH, Orav EJ, Ruhter J, Epstein AM. Readmissions, observation, and the Hospital Readmissions Reduction Program. N Engl J Med. 2016;374:1543-51. [PMID: 26910198] doi:10.1056/NEJMsa1513024
73. Figueroa JF, Tsugawa Y, Zheng J, Orav EJ, Jha AK. Association between the Value-Based Purchasing pay for performance program and patient mortality in US hospitals: observational study. BMJ. 2016;353:i2214. [PMID: 27160187] doi:10.1136/bmj.i2214
74. Ryan AM, Burgess JF Jr, Pesko MF, Borden WB, Dimick JB. The early effects of Medicare's mandatory hospital pay-for-performance program. Health Serv Res. 2015;50:81-97. [PMID: 25040485] doi:10 .1111/1475-6773.12206
75. Ryan A, Sutton M, Doran T. Does winning a pay-for-performance bonus improve subsequent quality performance? Evidence from the Hospital Quality Incentive Demonstration. Health Serv Res. 2014;49: 568-87. [PMID: 23909992] doi:10.1111/1475-6773.12097
76. Andriole KP, Prevedello LM, Dufault A, Pezeshk P, Bransfield R, Hanson R, et al. Augmenting the impact of technology adoption with financial incentive to improve radiology report signature times. J Am Coll Radiol. 2010;7:198-204. [PMID: 20193925] doi:10.1016/j.jacr .2009.11.011
77. Benzer JK, Young GJ, Burgess JF Jr, Baker E, Mohr DC, Charns MP, et al. Sustainability of quality improvement following removal of pay-for-performance incentives. J Gen Intern Med. 2014;29:127-32. [PMID: 23929219] doi:10.1007/s11606-013-2572-4
78. Kristensen SR, Meacock R, Turner AJ, Boaden R, McDonald R, Roland M, et al. Long-term effect of hospital pay for performance on mortality in England. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:540-8. [PMID: 25099578] doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1400962
79. Kuo RN, Chung KP, Lai MS. Effect of the Pay-for-Performance Program for Breast Cancer Care in Taiwan. J Oncol Pract. 2011;7: e8s-e15s. [PMID: 21886513] doi:10.1200/JOP.2011.000314
80. Vermeulen MJ, Stukel TA, Boozary AS, Guttmann A, Schull MJ. The effect of pay for performance in the emergency department on patient waiting times and quality of care in Ontario, Canada: a difference-in-differences analysis. Ann Emerg Med. 2016;67:496-505. [PMID: 26215670] doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2015.06.028
81. Colais P, Pinnarelli L, Fusco D, Davoli M, Braga M, Perucci CA. The impact of a pay-for-performance system on timing to hip fracture surgery: experience from the Lazio Region (Italy). BMC Health Serv Res. 2013;13:393. [PMID: 24099264] doi:10.1186/1472-6963 -13-393
82. Yang JH, Kim SM, Han SJ, Knaak M, Yang GH, Lee KD, et al. The impact of Value Incentive Program (VIP) on the quality of hospital care for acute stroke in Korea. Int J Qual Health Care. 2016;28:580-585. [PMID: 27650012]
83. Gillam S, Steel N. The Quality and Outcomes Framework-where next? BMJ. 2013;346:f659. [PMID: 23393112] doi:10.1136/bmj.f659
84. Tricco AC, Ivers NM, Grimshaw JM, Moher D, Turner L, Galipeau J, et al. Effectiveness of quality improvement strategies on the management of diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2012;379:2252-61. [PMID: 22683130] doi:10.1016/S0140-6736 (12)60480-2
85. Emanuel EJ, Ubel PA, Kessler JB, Meyer G, Muller RW, Navathe AS, et al. Using behavioral economics to design physician incentives that deliver high-value care. Ann Intern Med. 2016;164:114-9. [PMID: 26595370] doi:10.7326/M15-1330
86. Kondo KK, Damberg CL, Mendelson A, Motúapuaka M, Freeman M, O'Neil M, et al. Implementation processes and pay for performance in healthcare: a systematic review. J Gen Intern Med. 2016;31 Suppl 1:61-9. [PMID: 26951276] doi:10.1007/s11606-015 -3567-0
87. Kondo K, Damberg C, Mendelson A, Motúapuaka M, Freeman M, O'Neil M, et al. Understanding the Intervention and Implementation Factors Associated with Benefits and Harms of Pay for Performance Programs in Healthcare. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs; 2015. [PMID: 27054229]
88. Kansagara D, Tuepker A, Joos S, Nicolaidis C, Skaperdas E, Hickam D. Getting performance metrics right: a qualitative study of staff experiences implementing and measuring practice transformation. J Gen Intern Med. 2014;29 Suppl 2:S607-13. [PMID: 24557515] doi:10.1007/s11606-013-2764-y
89. Powell AA, White KM, Partin MR, Halek K, Christianson JB, Neil B, et al. Unintended consequences of implementing a national performance measurement system into local practice. J Gen Intern Med. 2012;27:405-12. [PMID: 21993998] doi:10.1007/s11606-011-1906-3
90. Kizer KW, Kirsh SR. The double edged sword of performance measurement [Editorial]. J Gen Intern Med. 2012;27:395-7. [PMID: 22271270] doi:10.1007/s11606-011-1981-5
91. Casalino LP, Gans D, Weber R, Cea M, Tuchovsky A, Bishop TF, et al. US physician practices spend more than $15.4 billion annually to report quality measures. Health Aff (Millwood). 2016;35:401-6. [PMID: 26953292] doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2015.1258
92. Roland M, Campbell S. Successes and failures of pay for performance in the United Kingdom. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:1944-9. [PMID: 24827040] doi:10.1056/NEJMhpr1316051
93. Parast L, Doyle B, Damberg CL, Shetty K, Ganz DA, Wenger NS, et al. Challenges in assessing the process-outcome link in practice. J Gen Intern Med. 2015;30:359-64. [PMID: 25564435] doi:10.1007 /s11606-014-3150-0
94. Findlay S, Berenson R, Lott R, Gnadinger T. Health Policy Brief: Medicare's New Physician Payment System. A 2015 law has the potential to transform how Medicare pays physicians. Health Affairs. 21 April 2016.