Fifty years of research in ards the epidemiology of acute respiratory distress syndrome a 50th birthday review

American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 195, Issue 7, 2017, Pages 860-870

  Pham, Tai ^a,b   Rubenfeld, Gordon D ^a,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^b ST MICHAEL'S HOSPITAL   (Canada)

^c SUNNYBROOK RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADULT RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME; CLINICAL OUTCOME; COMORBIDITY; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT SYNDROME; MEDICAL HISTORY; MORTALITY; PHENOTYPE; POPULATION RESEARCH; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH; MEDICAL RESEARCH; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME, ADULT;

BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; HUMANS; RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME, ADULT;

EID: 85017406675     PISSN: 1073449X     EISSN: 15354970     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201609-1773CP     Document Type: Review

References (96)

1. Bellani G, Laffey JG, Pham T, Fan E, Brochard L, Esteban A, Gattinoni L, van Haren F, Larsson A, McAuley DF, , et al. ; LUNG SAFE Investigators; ESICM Trials Group. Epidemiology, patterns of care, and mortality for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in intensive care units in 50 countries. JAMA 2016;315:788-800.
2. Ashbaugh DG, Bigelow DB, Petty TL, Levine BE. Acute respiratory distress in adults. Lancet 1967;2:319-323.
3. Petty TL. In the cards was ARDS: How we discovered the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:602-603.
4. Duggal A, Ganapathy A, Ratnapalan M, Adhikari NK. Pharmacological treatments for acute respiratory distress syndrome: Systematic review. Minerva Anestesiol 2015;81:567-588.
5. Wilder RJ. Multiple trauma. Basel, NY: Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers; 1984.
6. Murray JF, Matthay MA, Luce JM, Flick MR. An expanded definition of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988;138:720-723.
7. Bernard GR, Artigas A, Brigham KL, Carlet J, Falke K, Hudson L, Lamy M, Legall JR, Morris A, Spragg R. The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS: Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordination. Am J Respir Crit CareMed 1994;149:818-824.
8. Moss M, Goodman PL, Heinig M, Barkin S, Ackerson L, Parsons PE. Establishing the relative accuracy of three new definitions of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 1995;23:1629-1637.
9. Villar J, Pé rez-Mé ndez L, Kacmarek RM. Current definitions of acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome do not reflect their true severity and outcome. Intensive Care Med 1999;25: 930-935.
10. Ferguson ND, Kacmarek RM, Chiche J-D, Singh JM, Hallett DC, Mehta S, Stewart TE. Screening of ARDS patients using standardized ventilator settings: Influence on enrollment in a clinical trial. Intensive Care Med 2004;30:1111-1116.
11. Ferguson ND, Davis AM, Slutsky AS, Stewart TE. Development of a clinical definition for acute respiratory distress syndrome using the Delphi technique. J Crit Care 2005;20:147-154.
12. Villar J, Pé rez-Mé ndez L, Blanco J, Anõ n JM, Blanch L, Belda J, Santos-Bouza A, Ferná ndez RL, Kacmarek RM; Spanish Initiative for Epidemiology, Stratification, and Therapies for ARDS (SIESTA) Network. A universal definition of ARDS: The PaO2/FiO2 ratio under a standard ventilatory setting-a prospective, multicenter validation study. Intensive Care Med 2013;39:583-592.
13. Ranieri VM, Rubenfeld GD, Thompson BT, Ferguson ND, Caldwell E, Fan E, Camporota L, Slutsky AS; ARDS Definition Task Force. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: The Berlin definition. JAMA 2012;307: 2526-2533.
14. Ferguson ND, Fan E, Camporota L, Antonelli M, Anzueto A, Beale R, Brochard L, Brower R, Esteban A, Gattinoni L, , et al. The Berlin definition of ARDS: An expanded rationale, justification, and supplementary material. Intensive Care Med 2012;38:1573-1582.
15. Rubenfeld GD. Epidemiology of acute lung injury. Crit Care Med 2003; 31:S276-S284.
16. Rubenfeld GD, Christie JD. The epidemiologist in the intensive care unit. Intensive Care Med 2004;30:4-6.
17. Aboab J, Louis B, Jonson B, Brochard L. Relation between PaO2/FIO2 ratio and FIO2: A mathematical description. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:1494-1497.
18. Villar J, Pé rez-Mé ndez L, Ló pez J, Belda J, Blanco J, Saralegui I, Suá rez-Sipmann F, Ló pez J, Lubillo S, Kacmarek RM; HELP Network. An early PEEP/FIO2 trial identifies different degrees of lung injury in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;176:795-804.
19. Britos M, Smoot E, Liu KD, Thompson BT, Checkley W, Brower RG; National Institutes of Health Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network Investigators. The value of positive end-expiratory pressure and Fio2 criteria in the definition of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 2011;39:2025-2030.
20. Rubenfeld GD, Caldwell E, Granton J, Hudson LD, Matthay MA. Interobserver variability in applying a radiographic definition for ARDS. Chest 1999;116:1347-1353.
21. Meade MO, Cook RJ, Guyatt GH, Groll R, Kachura JR, Bedard M, Cook DJ, Slutsky AS, Stewart TE. Interobserver variation in interpreting chest radiographs for the diagnosis of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161:85-90.
22. Lichtenstein D, Goldstein I, Mourgeon E, Cluzel P, Grenier P, Rouby J-J. Comparative diagnostic performances of auscultation, chest radiography, and lung ultrasonography in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Anesthesiology 2004;100:9-15.
23. Figueroa-Casas JB, Brunner N, Dwivedi AK, Ayyappan AP. Accuracy of the chest radiograph to identify bilateral pulmonary infiltrates consistent with the diagnosis of acute respiratory distress syndrome using computed tomography as reference standard. J Crit Care 2013;28:352-357.
24. Adhikari NKJ, Fowler RA, Bhagwanjee S, Rubenfeld GD. Critical care and the global burden of critical illness in adults. Lancet 2010;376: 1339-1346.
25. Riviello ED, Kiviri W, Twagirumugabe T, Mueller A, Banner-Goodspeed VM, Officer L, Novack V, Mutumwinka M, Talmor DS, Fowler RA. Hospital incidence and outcomes of the acute respiratory distress syndrome using the Kigali modification of the Berlin definition. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2016;193:52-59.
26. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1301-1308.
27. Briel M, Meade M, Mercat A, Brower RG, Talmor D, Walter SD, Slutsky AS, Pullenayegum E, Zhou Q, Cook D, , et al. Higher vs lower positive end-expiratory pressure in patients with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: Systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2010;303:865-873.
28. Papazian L, Forel J-M, Gacouin A, Penot-Ragon C, Perrin G, Loundou A, Jaber S, Arnal J-M, Perez D, Seghboyan J-M, , et al. ; ACURASYS Study Investigators. Neuromuscular blockers in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2010;363: 1107-1116.
29. Gué rin C, Reignier J, Richard J-C, Beuret P, Gacouin A, Boulain T, Mercier E, Badet M, Mercat A, Baudin O, , et al. ; PROSEVA Study Group. Prone positioning in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2013;368:2159-2168.
30. Gajic O, Herasevich V, Hubmayr RD. Will the electronic medical record live up to its promise? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010;182: 585-586.
31. Liu V, Clark MP, Mendoza M, Saket R, Gardner MN, Turk BJ, Escobar GJ. Automated identification of pneumonia in chest radiograph reports in critically ill patients. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak 2013; 13:90.
32. Ahmed A, Thongprayoon C, Pickering BW, Akhoundi A, Wilson G, Pieczkiewicz D, Herasevich V. Towards prevention of acute syndromes: Electronic identification of at-risk patients during hospital admission. Appl Clin Inform 2014;5:58-72.
33. Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Bernard GR, Hayden DL, Schoenfeld DA, Ware LB; National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute ARDS Network. Comparison of the SpO2/FIO2 ratio and the PaO2/FIO2 ratio in patients with acute lung injury or ARDS. Chest 2007;132:410-417.
34. Bass CM, Sajed DR, Adedipe AA, West TE. Pulmonary ultrasound and pulse oximetry versus chest radiography and arterial blood gas analysis for the diagnosis of acute respiratory distress syndrome: A pilot study. Crit Care 2015;19:282.
35. U. S. Food and Drug Administration. Developing products for rare diseases ,conditions [updated 2017 Feb 17; accessed 2017 Feb 27]. Available from: Http://www. fda. gov/ForIndustry/DevelopingProductsforRareDiseasesConditions/default. htm
36. Gaieski DF, Edwards JM, Kallan MJ, Carr BG. Benchmarking the incidence and mortality of severe sepsis in the United States. Crit Care Med 2013;41:1167-1174.
37. Mayr FB, Yende S, Angus DC. Epidemiology of severe sepsis. Virulence 2014;5:4-11.
38. Gohil SK, Cao C, Phelan M, Tjoa T, Rhee C, Platt R, Huang SS; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Epicenters Program. Impact of policies on the rise in sepsis incidence, 2000-2010. Clin Infect Dis 2016;62:695-703.
39. Nolan S, Burgess K, Hopper L, Braude S. Acute respiratory distress syndrome in a community hospital ICU. Intensive Care Med 1997;23: 530-538.
40. Luhr OR, Antonsen K, Karlsson M, Aardal S, Thorsteinsson A, Frostell CG, Bonde J; The ARF Study Group. Incidence and mortality after acute respiratory failure and acute respiratory distress syndrome in Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159: 1849-1861.
41. Bersten AD, Edibam C, Hunt T, Moran J; Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group. Incidence and mortality of acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome in three Australian States. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165: 443-448.
42. Rubenfeld GD, Caldwell E, Peabody E, Weaver J, Martin DP, Neff M, Stern EJ, Hudson LD. Incidence and outcomes of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 2005;353:1685-1693.
43. Manzano F, Yuste E, Colmenero M, Aranda A, Garć?a-Horcajadas A, Rivera R, Ferná ndez-Mondé jar E; Granada Respiratory Failure Study Group. Incidence of acute respiratory distress syndrome and its relation to age. J Crit Care 2005;20:274-280.
44. Li G, Malinchoc M, Cartin-Ceba R, Venkata CV, Kor DJ, Peters SG, Hubmayr RD, Gajic O. Eight-year trend of acute respiratory distress syndrome: A population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;183:59-66.
45. Caser EB, Zandonade E, Pereira E, Gama AMC, Barbas CSV. Impact of distinct definitions of acute lung injury on its incidence and outcomes in Brazilian ICUs: Prospective evaluation of 7, 133 patients. Crit Care Med 2014;42:574-582.
46. Linko R, Okkonen M, Pettilä V, Perttilä J, Parviainen I, Ruokonen E, Tenhunen J, Ala-Kokko T, Varpula T; FINNALI-study group. Acute respiratory failure in intensive care units. FINNALI: A prospective cohort study. Intensive Care Med 2009;35:1352-1361.
47. Villar J, Blanco J, Anõ n JM, Santos-Bouza A, Blanch L, Ambró s A, Gand?a F, Carriedo D, Mosteiro F, Basaldú a S, , et al. ; ALIEN Network. The ALIEN study: Incidence and outcome of acute respiratory distress syndrome in the era of lung protective ventilation. Intensive Care Med 2011;37:1932-1941.
48. Goss CH, Brower RG, Hudson LD, Rubenfeld GD; ARDS Network. Incidence of acute lung injury in the United States. Crit Care Med 2003;31:1607-1611.
49. Brun-Buisson C, Minelli C, Bertolini G, Brazzi L, Pimentel J, Lewandowski K, Bion J, Romand J-A, Villar J, Thorsteinsson A, , et al. ; ALIVE Study Group. Epidemiology and outcome of acute lung injury in European intensive care units: Results from the ALIVE study. Intensive Care Med 2004;30:51-61.
50. Sakr Y, Vincent J-L, Reinhart K, Groeneveld J, Michalopoulos A, Sprung CL, Artigas A, Ranieri VM; Sepsis Occurence in Acutely Ill Patients Investigators. High tidal volume and positive fluid balance are associated with worse outcome in acute lung injury. Chest 2005; 128:3098-3108.
51. Irish Critical Care Trials Group. Acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome in Ireland: A prospective audit of epidemiology and management. Crit Care 2008;12:R30.
52. Treggiari MM, Hudson LD, Martin DP, Weiss NS, Caldwell E, Rubenfeld G. Effect of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome on outcome in critically ill trauma patients. Crit Care Med 2004;32: 327-331.
53. Shah CV, Localio AR, Lanken PN, Kahn JM, Bellamy S, Gallop R, Finkel B, Gracias VH, Fuchs BD, Christie JD. The impact of development of acute lung injury on hospital mortality in critically ill trauma patients. Crit Care Med 2008;36:2309-2315.
54. Mikkelsen ME, Shah CV, Meyer NJ, Gaieski DF, Lyon S, Miltiades AN, Goyal M, Fuchs BD, Bellamy SL, Christie JD. The epidemiology of acute respiratory distress syndrome in patients presenting to the emergency department with severe sepsis. Shock 2013;40: 375-381.
55. Rubenfeld GD. Who cares about preventing acute respiratory distress syndrome? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015;191:255-260.
56. Sigurdsson MI, Sigvaldason K, Gunnarsson TS, Moller A, Sigurdsson GH. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: Nationwide changes in incidence, treatment and mortality over 23 years. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2013;57:37-45.
57. Cochi SE, Kempker JA, Annangi S, Kramer MR, Martin GS. mortality trends of acute respiratory distress syndrome in the United States from 1999 to 2013. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2016;13: 1742-1751.
58. Chen W, Chen Y-Y, Tsai C-F, Chen SC-C, Lin M-S, Ware LB, Chen C-M. Incidence and outcomes of acute respiratory distress syndrome: A nationwide registry-based study in Taiwan, 1997 to 2011. Medicine (Baltimore) 2015;94:e1849.
59. Jolley RJ, Quan H, Jetté N, Sawka KJ, Diep L, Goliath J, Roberts DJ, Yipp BG, Doig CJ. Validation and optimisation of an ICD-10-coded case definition for sepsis using administrative health data. BMJ Open 2015;5:e009487.
60. Howard AE, Courtney-Shapiro C, Kelso LA, Goltz M, Morris PE. Comparison of 3 methods of detecting acute respiratory distress syndrome: Clinical screening, chart review, and diagnostic coding. Am J Crit Care 2004;13:59-64.
61. Erickson SE, Martin GS, Davis JL, Matthay MA, Eisner MD; NIH NHLBI ARDS Network. Recent trends in acute lung injury mortality: 1996-2005. Crit Care Med 2009;37:1574-1579.
62. Zambon M, Vincent J-L. Mortality rates for patients with acute lung injury/ARDS have decreased over time. Chest 2008;133: 1120-1127.
63. Phua J, Badia JR, Adhikari NKJ, Friedrich JO, Fowler RA, Singh JM, Scales DC, Stather DR, Li A, Jones A, , et al. Has mortality from acute respiratory distress syndrome decreased over time?: A systematic review. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009;179: 220-227.
64. Erickson SE, Shlipak MG, Martin GS, Wheeler AP, Ancukiewicz M, Matthay MA, Eisner MD; National Institutes of Health National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Racial and ethnic disparities in mortality from acute lung injury. Crit Care Med 2009;37:1-6.
65. Meyer NJ, Christie JD. Genetic heterogeneity and risk of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2013;34: 459-474.
66. Moss M, Parsons PE, Steinberg KP, Hudson LD, Guidot DM, Burnham EL, Eaton S, Cotsonis GA. Chronic alcohol abuse is associated with an increased incidence of acute respiratory distress syndrome and severity of multiple organ dysfunction in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med 2003;31:869-877.
67. Licker M, de Perrot M, Spiliopoulos A, Robert J, Diaper J, Chevalley C, Tschopp J-M. Risk factors for acute lung injury after thoracic surgery for lung cancer. Anesth Analg 2003;97:1558-1565.
68. Gajic O, Rana R, Winters JL, Yilmaz M, Mendez JL, Rickman OB, O'Byrne MM, Evenson LK, Malinchoc M, DeGoey SR, , et al. Transfusion-related acute lung injury in the critically ill: Prospective nested case-control study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;176: 886-891.
69. Moazed F, Calfee CS. Environmental risk factors for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Clin Chest Med 2014;35:625-637.
70. Kaphalia L, Calhoun WJ. Alcoholic lung injury: Metabolic, biochemical and immunological aspects. Toxicol Lett 2013; 222:171-179.
71. Hsieh SJ, Zhuo H, Benowitz NL, Thompson BT, Liu KD, Matthay MA, Calfee CS; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network; National Heart Lung and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Prevalence and impact of active and passive cigarette smoking in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 2014;42: 2058-2068.
72. Calfee CS, Matthay MA, Kangelaris KN, Siew ED, Janz DR, Bernard GR, May AK, Jacob P, Havel C, Benowitz NL, , et al. Cigarette smoke exposure and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 2015;43:1790-1797.
73. McCallister JW, Adkins EJ, O'Brien JM Jr. Obesity and acute lung injury. Clin Chest Med 2009;30:495-508, viii.
74. Moss M, Guidot DM, Steinberg KP, Duhon GF, Treece P, Wolken R, Hudson LD, Parsons PE. Diabetic patients have a decreased incidence of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 2000;28:2187-2192.
75. Rubenfeld GD, Herridge MS. Epidemiology and outcomes of acute lung injury. Chest 2007;131:554-562.
76. Peters AL, Van Stein D, Vlaar APJ. Antibody-mediated transfusionrelated acute lung injury; from discovery to prevention. Br J Haematol 2015;170:597-614.
77. Mü ller MCA, van Stein D, Binnekade JM, van Rhenen DJ, Vlaar APJ. Low-risk transfusion-related acute lung injury donor strategies and the impact on the onset of transfusion-related acute lung injury: A meta-analysis. Transfusion 2015;55: 164-175.
78. Toy P, Bacchetti P, Grimes B, Gajic O, Murphy EL, Winters JL, Gropper MA, Hubmayr RD, Matthay MA, Wilson G, , et al. Recipient clinical risk factors predominate in possible transfusion-related acute lung injury. Transfusion 2015;55:947-952.
79. Ware LB, Zhao Z, Koyama T, May AK, Matthay MA, Lurmann FW, Balmes JR, Calfee CS. Long-term ozone exposure increases the risk of developing the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2016;193:1143-1150.
80. Trillo-Alvarez C, Cartin-Ceba R, Kor DJ, Kojicic M, Kashyap R, Thakur S, Thakur L, Herasevich V, Malinchoc M, Gajic O. Acute lung injury prediction score: Derivation and validation in a population-based sample. Eur Respir J 2011;37:604-609.
81. Gajic O, Dabbagh O, Park PK, Adesanya A, Chang SY, Hou P, Anderson H III, Hoth JJ, Mikkelsen ME, Gentile NT, , et al. ; U. S. Critical Illness and Injury Trials Group: Lung Injury Prevention Study Investigators (USCIITG-LIPS). Early identification of patients at risk of acute lung injury: Evaluation of lung injury prediction score in a multicenter cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;183: 462-470.
82. Kor DJ, Carter RE, Park PK, Festic E, Banner-Goodspeed VM, Hinds R, Talmor D, Gajic O, Ware LB, Gong MN; US Critical Illness and Injury Trials Group: Lung Injury Prevention with Aspirin Study Group (USCIITG: LIPS-A). Effect of aspirin on development of ARDS in at-risk patients presenting to the emergency department: The LIPS-A randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2016;315:2406-2414.
83. Cooke CR, Kahn JM, Caldwell E, Okamoto VN, Heckbert SR, Hudson LD, Rubenfeld GD. Predictors of hospital mortality in a population-based cohort of patients with acute lung injury. Crit Care Med 2008;36: 1412-1420.
84. Laffey JG, Bellani G, Pham T, Fan E, Madotto F, Bajwa EK, Brochard L, Clarkson K, Esteban A, Gattinoni L, , et al. ; LUNG SAFE Investigators and the ESICM Trials Group. Potentially modifiable factors contributing to outcome from acute respiratory distress syndrome: The LUNG SAFE study. Intensive Care Med 2016;42: 1865-1876.
85. O'Neal HR Jr, Koyama T, Koehler EAS, Siew E, Curtis BR, Fremont RD, May AK, Bernard GR, Ware LB. Prehospital statin and aspirin use and the prevalence of severe sepsis and acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 2011;39: 1343-1350.
86. Erlich JM, Talmor DS, Cartin-Ceba R, Gajic O, Kor DJ. Prehospitalization antiplatelet therapy is associated with a reduced incidence of acute lung injury: A population-based cohort study. Chest 2011;139:289-295.
87. Chen W, Janz DR, Bastarache JA, May AK, O'Neal HR Jr, Bernard GR, Ware LB. Prehospital aspirin use is associated with reduced risk of acute respiratory distress syndrome in critically ill patients: A propensityadjusted analysis. Crit Care Med 2015;43:801-807.
88. Beitler JR, Goligher EC, Schmidt M, Spieth PM, Zanella A, Martin-Loeches I, Calfee CS, Cavalcanti AB; ARDSne(x)t Investigators. Personalized medicine for ARDS: The 2035 research agenda. Intensive Care Med 2016;42:756-767.
89. Ellsworth DL, Manolio TA. The emerging importance of genetics in epidemiologic research II: Issues in study design and gene mapping. Ann Epidemiol 1999;9:75-90.
90. Shah CV, Lanken PN, Localio AR, Gallop R, Bellamy S, Ma S-F, Flores C, Kahn JM, Finkel B, Fuchs BD, , et al. An alternative method of acute lung injury classification for use in observational studies. Chest 2010; 138:1054-1061.
91. Lötvall J, Akdis CA, Bacharier LB, Bjermer L, Casale TB, Custovic A, Lemanske RF Jr, Wardlaw AJ, Wenzel SE, Greenberger PA. Asthma endotypes: A new approach to classification of disease entities within the asthma syndrome. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011;127:355-360.
92. Fremont RD, Koyama T, Calfee CS, Wu W, Dossett LA, Bossert FR, Mitchell D, Wickersham N, Bernard GR, Matthay MA, , et al. Acute lung injury in patients with traumatic injuries: Utility of a panel of biomarkers for diagnosis and pathogenesis. J Trauma 2010;68: 1121-1127.
93. Calfee CS, Delucchi K, Parsons PE, Thompson BT, Ware LB, Matthay MA; NHLBI ARDS Network. Subphenotypes in acute respiratory distress syndrome: Latent class analysis of data from two randomised controlled trials. Lancet Respir Med 2014;2:611-620.
94. Famous KR, Delucchi K, Ware LB, Kangelaris KN, Liu KD, Thompson BT, Calfee CS; ARDS Network. Acute respiratory distress syndrome subphenotypes respond differently to randomized fluid management strategy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2017;195:331-338.
95. Agarwal R, Srinivas R, Nath A, Jindal SK. Is the mortality higher in the pulmonary vs the extrapulmonary ARDS? A meta analysis. Chest 2008;133:1463-1473.
96. Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL. Modern epidemiology, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams ,Wilkins; 2008.