Neuromyelitis Spectrum Disorders

Mayo Clinic Proceedings

Volumn 92, Issue 4, 2017, Pages 663-679

  Weinshenker, Brian G ^a   Wingerchuk, Dean M ^b  

^a MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

^b MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AQUAPORIN 4 ANTIBODY; AUTOANTIBODY; AZATHIOPRINE; BEVACIZUMAB; CD19 ANTIBODY; CETIRIZINE; COMPLEMENT COMPONENT C1S INHIBITOR; COMPLEMENT INHIBITOR; CORTICOSTEROID; ECULIZUMAB; GLATIRAMER; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G ANTIBODY; INEBILIZUMAB; METHOTREXATE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; MITOXANTRONE; MYCOPHENOLATE MOFETIL; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID; MYELIN OLIGODENDROCYTE GLYCOPROTEIN ANTIBODY; PREDNISONE; RITUXIMAB; SA237; SIVELESTAT; TOCILIZUMAB; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; AQUAPORIN 4; BIOLOGICAL MARKER;

ACUTE LEUKEMIA; ALLERGIC REACTION; ANTIGEN EXPRESSION; ASTROCYTE; AUTOIMMUNITY; B LYMPHOCYTE; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; CARDIOTOXICITY; COMPLEMENT DEPENDENT CYTOTOXICITY; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DRUG EFFICACY; FLUID RETENTION; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HEPATITIS B; HEREDITY; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INCIDENCE; INFUSION RELATED REACTION; LIVER TOXICITY; LOW DRUG DOSE; LYMPHOMA; MALIGNANT NEOPLASM; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; MYCOSIS; MYELOOPTIC NEUROPATHY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION; PARANEOPLASTIC SYNDROME; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PLASMA EXCHANGE; PLASMABLAST; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; SERODIAGNOSIS; SIDE EFFECT; SKIN MANIFESTATION; STOMACH IRRITATION; T LYMPHOCYTE ACTIVATION; TERATOGENICITY; TH17 CELL; THERAPY EFFECT; TUBERCULOSIS; WEIGHT GAIN; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; IMMUNOLOGY; NEUROMYELITIS OPTICA;

AQUAPORIN 4; AUTOANTIBODIES; BIOMARKERS; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; HUMANS; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NEUROMYELITIS OPTICA;

EID: 85016943840     PISSN: 00256196     EISSN: 19425546     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.mayocp.2016.12.014     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. 1 Jarius, S., Wildemann, B., An early case of neuromyelitis optica: on a forgotten report by Jacob Lockhart Clarke, FRS. Mult Scler 17:11 (2011), 1384–1386.
2. 2 Devic, C., Myelite subaigue compliquee de nevrite optique. Bull Med 35 (1894), 18–30.
3. 3 Wingerchuk, D.M., Hogancamp, W.F., O'Brien, P.C., Weinshenker, B.G., The clinical course of neuromyelitis optica (Devic's syndrome). Neurology 53:5 (1999), 1107–1114.
4. 4 Lennon, V.A., Wingerchuk, D.M., Kryzer, T.J., et al. A serum autoantibody marker of neuromyelitis optica: distinction from multiple sclerosis. Lancet 364:9451 (2004), 2106–2112.
5. 5 Lennon, V.A., Kryzer, T.J., Pittock, S.J., Verkman, A.S., Hinson, S.R., IgG marker of optic-spinal multiple sclerosis binds to the aquaporin-4 water channel. J Exp Med 202:4 (2005), 473–477.
6. 6 Popescu, B.F.G., Lennon, V.A., Parisi, J.E., et al. Neuromyelitis optica unique area postrema lesions: nausea, vomiting, and pathogenic implications. Neurology 76:14 (2011), 1229–1237.
7. 7 Pittock, S.J., Lucchinetti, C.F., Neuromyelitis optica and the evolving spectrum of autoimmune aquaporin-4 channelopathies: a decade later. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1366:1 (2016), 20–39.
8. 8 Wingerchuk, D.M., Banwell, B., Bennett, J.L., et al., International Panel for NMO Diagnosis. International consensus diagnostic criteria for neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Neurology 85:2 (2015), 177–189.
9. 9 Sato, D.K., Callegaro, D., Lana-Peixoto, M.A., et al. Distinction between MOG antibody-positive and AQP4 antibody-positive NMO spectrum disorders. Neurology 82:6 (2014), 474–481.
10. 10 Reindl, M., Di Pauli, F., Rostásy, K., Berger, T., The spectrum of MOG autoantibody-associated demyelinating diseases. Nat Rev Neurol 9:8 (2013), 455–461.
11. 11 Kitley, J., Woodhall, M., Waters, P., et al. Myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies in adults with a neuromyelitis optica phenotype. Neurology 79:12 (2012), 1273–1277.
12. 12 Lucchinetti, C.F., Guo, Y., Popescu, B.F., Fujihara, K., Itoyama, Y., Misu, T., The pathology of an autoimmune astrocytopathy: lessons learned from neuromyelitis optica. Brain Pathol 24:1 (2014), 83–97.
13. 13 Takano, R., Misu, T., Takahashi, T., Sato, S., Fujihara, K., Itoyama, Y., Astrocytic damage is far more severe than demyelination in NMO: a clinical CSF biomarker study. Neurology 75:3 (2010), 208–216.
14. 14 Ikeda, K., Kiyota, N., Kuroda, H., et al. Severe demyelination but no astrocytopathy in clinically definite neuromyelitis optica with anti-myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody. Mult Scler 21:5 (2015), 656–659.
15. 15 Jarius, S., Wildemann, B., The case of the Marquis de Causan (1804): an early account of visual loss associated with spinal cord inflammation. J Neurol 259:7 (2012), 1354–1357.
16. 16 Gault, F., De la neuromyélite optique aiguë. [thesis], 1894, Rey, Lyon, France.
17. 17 Jarius, S., Wildemann, B., The history of neuromyelitis optica. J Neuroinflammation, 10, 2013, 8.
18. 18 O'Riordan, J.I., Gallagher, H.L., Thompson, A.J., et al. Clinical, CSF, and MRI findings in Devic's neuromyelitis optica. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 60:4 (1996), 382–387.
19. 19 Wingerchuk, D.M., Lennon, V.A., Pittock, S.J., Lucchinetti, C.F., Weinshenker, B.G., Revised diagnostic criteria for neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 66:10 (2006), 1485–1489.
20. 20 Wingerchuk, D.M., Lennon, V.A., Lucchinetti, C.F., Pittock, S.J., Weinshenker, B.G., The spectrum of neuromyelitis optica. Lancet Neurol 6:9 (2007), 805–815.
21. 21 Kira, J., Multiple sclerosis in the Japanese population. Lancet Neurol 2:2 (2003), 117–127.
22. 22 Pittock, S.J., Lennon, V.A., de Seze, J., et al. Neuromyelitis optica and non-organ-specific autoimmunity. Arch Neurol 65:1 (2008), 78–83.
23. 23 Pittock, S.J., Lennon, V.A., Krecke, K., Wingerchuk, D.M., Lucchinetti, C.F., Weinshenker, B.G., Brain abnormalities in neuromyelitis optica. Arch Neurol 63:3 (2006), 390–396.
24. 24 Kim, H.J., Paul, F., Lana-Peixoto, M.A., et al. Guthy-Jackson Charitable Foundation NMO International Clinical Consortium & Biorepository. MRI characteristics of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder: an international update. Neurology 84:11 (2015), 1165–1173.
25. 25 Wingerchuk, D.M., Pittock, S.J., Lucchinetti, C.F., Lennon, V.A., Weinshenker, B.G., A secondary progressive clinical course is uncommon in neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 68:8 (2007), 603–605.
26. 26 Palace, J., Leite, M.I., Nairne, A., Vincent, A., Interferon Beta treatment in neuromyelitis optica: increase in relapses and aquaporin 4 antibody titers. Arch Neurol 67:8 (2010), 1016–1017.
27. 27 Kleiter, I., Hellwig, K., Berthele, A., et al., Neuromyelitis Optica Study Group. Failure of natalizumab to prevent relapses in neuromyelitis optica. Arch Neurol 69:2 (2012), 239–245.
28. 28 Min, J.H., Kim, B.J., Lee, K.H., Development of extensive brain lesions following fingolimod (FTY720) treatment in a patient with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. Mult Scler 18:1 (2012), 113–115.
29. 29 Gelfand, J.M., Cotter, J., Klingman, J., Huang, E.J., Cree, B.A., Massive CNS monocytic infiltration at autopsy in an alemtuzumab-treated patient with NMO. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm, 1(3), 2014, e34.
30. 30 Flanagan, E.P., Weinshenker, B.G., Krecke, K.N., et al. Short myelitis lesions in aquaporin-4-IgG-positive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. JAMA Neurol 72:1 (2015), 81–87.
31. 31 Misu, T., Fujihara, K., Nakashima, I., Sato, S., Itoyama, Y., Intractable hiccup and nausea with periaqueductal lesions in neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 65:9 (2005), 1479–1482.
32. 32 Iorio, R., Lucchinetti, C.F., Lennon, V.A., et al. Intractable nausea and vomiting from autoantibodies against a brain water channel. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 11:3 (2013), 240–245.
33. 33 Waters, P.J., McKeon, A., Leite, M.I., et al. Serologic diagnosis of NMO: a multicenter comparison of aquaporin-4-IgG assays. Neurology 78:9 (2012), 665–671.
34. 34 Majed, M., Fryer, J.P., McKeon, A., Lennon, V.A., Pittock, S.J., Clinical utility of testing AQP4-IgG in CSF: guidance for physicians. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm, 3(3), 2016, e231.
35. 35 Khanna, S., Sharma, A., Huecker, J., Gordon, M., Naismith, R.T., Van Stavern, G.P., Magnetic resonance imaging of optic neuritis in patients with neuromyelitis optica versus multiple sclerosis. J Neuroophthalmol 32:3 (2012), 216–220.
36. 36 Ramanathan, S., Prelog, K., Barnes, E.H., et al. Radiological differentiation of optic neuritis with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies, aquaporin-4 antibodies, and multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler 22:4 (2016), 470–482.
37. 37 Banwell, B., Tenembaum, S., Lennon, V.A., et al. Neuromyelitis optica-IgG in childhood inflammatory demyelinating CNS disorders. Neurology 70:5 (2008), 344–352.
38. 38 McKeon, A., Lennon, V.A., Lotze, T., et al. CNS aquaporin-4 autoimmunity in children. Neurology 71:2 (2008), 93–100.
39. 39 Jarius, S., Kleiter, I., Ruprecht, K., et al., in cooperation with the Neuromyelitis Optica Study Group (NEMOS). MOG-IgG in NMO and related disorders: a multicenter study of 50 patients; Part 3: Brainstem involvement - frequency, presentation and outcome. J Neuroinflammation, 13(1), 2016, 281.
40. 40 Jarius, S., Ruprecht, K., Kleiter, I., et al., in cooperation with the Neuromyelitis Optica Study Group (NEMOS). MOG-IgG in NMO and related disorders: a multicenter study of 50 patients; Part 2: Epidemiology, clinical presentation, radiological and laboratory features, treatment responses, and long-term outcome. J Neuroinflammation, 13(1), 2016, 280.
41. 41 Jarius, S., Ruprecht, K., Kleiter, I., et al., in cooperation with the Neuromyelitis Optica Study Group (NEMOS). MOG-IgG in NMO and related disorders: a multicenter study of 50 patients; Part 1: Frequency, syndrome specificity, influence of disease activity, long-term course, association with AQP4-IgG, and origin. J Neuroinflammation, 13(1), 2016, 279.
42. 42 Pache, F., Zimmermann, H., Mikolajczak, J., et al., in cooperation with the Neuromyelitis Optica Study Group (NEMOS). MOG-IgG in NMO and related disorders: a multicenter study of 50 patients; Part 4: Afferent visual system damage after optic neuritis in MOG-IgG-seropositive versus AQP4-IgG-seropositive patients. J Neuroinflammation, 13(1), 2016, 282.
43. 43 Etemadifar, M., Nasr, Z., Khalili, B., Taherioun, M., Vosoughi, R., Epidemiology of neuromyelitis optica in the world: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mult Scler Int, 2015, 2015, 174720.
44. 44 Flanagan, E.P., Cabre, P., Weinshenker, B.G., et al. Epidemiology of aquaporin-4 autoimmunity and neuromyelitis optica spectrum. Ann Neurol 79:5 (2016), 775–783.
45. 45 Etemadifar, M., Dashti, M., Vosoughi, R., Abtahi, S.H., Ramagopalan, S.V., Nasr, Z., An epidemiological study of neuromyelitis optica in Isfahan. Mult Scler 20:14 (2014), 1920–1922.
46. 46 Pandit, L., Kundapur, R., Prevalence and patterns of demyelinating central nervous system disorders in urban Mangalore, South India. Mult Scler 20:12 (2014), 1651–1653.
47. 47 Jacob, A., Panicker, J., Lythgoe, D., et al. The epidemiology of neuromyelitis optica amongst adults in the Merseyside county of United Kingdom. J Neurol 260:8 (2013), 2134–2137.
48. 48 Houzen, H., Niino, M., Hirotani, M., et al. Increased prevalence, incidence, and female predominance of multiple sclerosis in northern Japan. J Neurol Sci 323:1-2 (2012), 117–122.
49. 49 Cossburn, M., Tackley, G., Baker, K., et al. The prevalence of neuromyelitis optica in South East Wales. Eur J Neurol 19:4 (2012), 655–659.
50. 50 Asgari, N., Lillevang, S.T., Skejoe, H.P., Falah, M., Stenager, E., Kyvik, K.O., A population-based study of neuromyelitis optica in Caucasians. Neurology 76:18 (2011), 1589–1595.
51. 51 Cabrera-Gómez, J.A., Kurtzke, J.F., González-Quevedo, A., Lara-Rodríguez, R., An epidemiological study of neuromyelitis optica in Cuba. J Neurol 256:1 (2009), 35–44.
52. 52 Rivera, J.F., Kurtzke, J.F., Booth, V.J.A., Corona, T.V., Characteristics of Devic's disease (neuromyelitis optica) in Mexico. J Neurol 255:5 (2008), 710–715.
53. 53 Matiello, M., Kim, H.J., Kim, W., et al. Familial neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 75:4 (2010), 310–315.
54. 54 Hinson, S.R., Romero, M.F., Popescu, B.F.G., et al. Molecular outcomes of neuromyelitis optica (NMO)-IgG binding to aquaporin-4 in astrocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109:4 (2012), 1245–1250.
55. 55 Saadoun, S., Waters, P., Bell, B.A., Vincent, A., Verkman, A.S., Papadopoulos, M.C., Intra-cerebral injection of neuromyelitis optica immunoglobulin G and human complement produces neuromyelitis optica lesions in mice. Brain 133:pt 2 (2010), 349–361.
56. 56 Bradl, M., Misu, T., Takahashi, T., et al. Neuromyelitis optica: pathogenicity of patient immunoglobulin in vivo. Ann Neurol 66:5 (2009), 630–643.
57. 57 Kinoshita, M., Nakatsuji, Y., Kimura, T., et al. Neuromyelitis optica: passive transfer to rats by human immunoglobulin. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 386:4 (2009), 623–627.
58. 58 Kinoshita, M., Nakatsuji, Y., Kimura, T., et al. Anti-aquaporin-4 antibody induces astrocytic cytotoxicity in the absence of CNS antigen-specific T cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 394:1 (2010), 205–210.
59. 59 Watanabe, S., Nakashima, I., Misu, T., et al. Therapeutic efficacy of plasma exchange in NMO-IgG-positive patients with neuromyelitis optica. Mult Scler 13:1 (2007), 128–132.
60. 60 Pittock, S.J., Lennon, V.A., McKeon, A., et al. Eculizumab in AQP4-IgG-positive relapsing neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders: an open-label pilot study. Lancet Neurol 12:6 (2013), 554–562.
61. 61 Cree, B.A., Lamb, S., Morgan, K., Chen, A., Waubant, E., Genain, C., An open label study of the effects of rituximab in neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 64:7 (2005), 1270–1272.
62. 62 Jacob, A., Weinshenker, B.G., Violich, I., et al. Treatment of neuromyelitis optica with rituximab: retrospective analysis of 25 patients. Arch Neurol 65:11 (2008), 1443–1448.
63. 63 Saadoun, S., Waters, P., Owens, G.P., Bennett, J.L., Vincent, A., Papadopoulos, M.C., Neuromyelitis optica MOG-IgG causes reversible lesions in mouse brain. Acta Neuropathol Commun, 2, 2014, 35.
64. 64 Lucchinetti, C.F., Mandler, R.N., McGavern, D., et al. A role for humoral mechanisms in the pathogenesis of Devic's neuromyelitis optica. Brain 125:pt 7 (2002), 1450–1461.
65. 65 Figueroa, M., Guo, Y., Tselis, A., et al. Paraneoplastic neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder associated with metastatic carcinoid expressing aquaporin-4. JAMA Neurol 71:4 (2014), 495–498.
66. 66 Ontaneda, D., Fox, R.J., Is neuromyelitis optica with advanced age of onset a paraneoplastic disorder?. Int J Neurosci 124:7 (2014), 509–511.
67. 67 Yang, H.K., Woo, S.J., Park, W.Y., Hwang, J.M., Paraneoplastic neuromyelitis optica associated with ANNA-1 antibodies in invasive thymoma. BMC Ophthalmol, 14, 2014, 106.
68. 68 Verschuur, C.V., Kooi, A.J., Troost, D., Anti-aquaporin 4 related paraneoplastic neuromyelitis optica in the presence of adenocarcinoma of the lung. Clin Neuropathol 34:4 (2015), 232–236.
69. 69 Howe, C.L., Kaptzan, T., Magaña, S.M., Ayers-Ringler, J.R., LaFrance-Corey, R.G., Lucchinetti, C.F., Neuromyelitis optica IgG stimulates an immunological response in rat astrocyte cultures. Glia 62:5 (2014), 692–708.
70. 70 Walker-Caulfield, M.E., Guo, Y., Johnson, R.K., et al. NFκB signaling drives pro-granulocytic astroglial responses to neuromyelitis optica patient IgG. J Neuroinflammation, 12, 2015, 185.
71. 71 Brum, D.G., Barreira, A.A., dos Santos, A.C., et al. HLA-DRB association in neuromyelitis optica is different from that observed in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler 16:1 (2010), 21–29.
72. 72 Liu, Q.-B., Li, Z.-X., Zhao, G.-X., Yu, H., Wu, Z.-Y., No association between identified multiple sclerosis non-MHC risk loci and neuromyelitis optica. Neurosci Bull 30:6 (2014), 1036–1044.
73. 73 Brum, D.G., Luizon, M.R., Santos, A.C., et al. European ancestry predominates in neuromyelitis optica and multiple sclerosis patients from Brazil. PLoS One, 8(3), 2013, e58925.
74. 74 Matiello, M., Schaefer-Klein, J.L., Hebrink, D.D., Kingsbury, D.J., Atkinson, E.J., Weinshenker, B.G., NMO Genetics Collaborators. Genetic analysis of aquaporin-4 in neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 77:12 (2011), 1149–1155.
75. 75 Wei, Q., Yanyu, C., Rui, L., et al. Human aquaporin 4 gene polymorphisms in Chinese patients with neuromyelitis optica. J Neuroimmunol 274:1–2 (2014), 192–196.
76. 76 Leite, M.I., Coutinho, E., Lana-Peixoto, M., et al. Myasthenia gravis and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder: a multicenter study of 16 patients. Neurology 78:20 (2012), 1601–1607.
77. 77 Zoccarato, M., Saddi, M.V., Serra, G., et al. Aquaporin-4 antibody neuromyelitis optica following anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. J Neurol 260:12 (2013), 3185–3187.
78. 78 Moussawi, K., Lin, D.J., Matiello, M., Chew, S., Morganstern, D., Vaitkevicius, H., Brainstem and limbic encephalitis with paraneoplastic neuromyelitis optica. J Clin Neurosci 23 (2016), 159–161.
79. 79 Hacohen, Y., Zuberi, S., Vincent, A., Crow, Y.J., Cordeiro, N., Neuromyelitis optica in a child with Aicardi-GoutiÈres syndrome. Neurology 85:4 (2015), 381–383.
80. 80 Yoshimura, S., Isobe, N., Matsushita, T., et al., South Japan Multiple Sclerosis Genetics Consortium. Distinct genetic and infectious profiles in Japanese neuromyelitis optica patients according to anti-aquaporin 4 antibody status. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 84:1 (2013), 29–34.
81. 81 Varrin-Doyer, M., Spencer, C.M., Schulze-Topphoff, U., et al. Aquaporin 4-specific T cells in neuromyelitis optica exhibit a Th17 bias and recognize Clostridium ABC transporter. Ann Neurol 72:1 (2012), 53–64.
82. 82 Cree, B.A.C., Spencer, C.M., Varrin-Doyer, M., Baranzini, S.E., Zamvil, S.S., Gut microbiome analysis in neuromyelitis optica reveals overabundance of Clostridium perfringens. Ann Neurol 80:3 (2016), 443–447.
83. 83 Arellano, B., Hussain, R., Zacharias, T., et al. Human aquaporin 4281-300 is the immunodominant linear determinant in the context of HLA-DRB1*03:01: relevance for diagnosing and monitoring patients with neuromyelitis optica. Arch Neurol 69:9 (2012), 1125–1131.
84. 84 Chihara, N., Aranami, T., Sato, W., et al. Interleukin 6 signaling promotes anti-aquaporin 4 autoantibody production from plasmablasts in neuromyelitis optica. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108:9 (2011), 3701–3706.
85. 85 Araki, M., Matsuoka, T., Miyamoto, K., et al. Efficacy of the anti-IL-6 receptor antibody tocilizumab in neuromyelitis optica: a pilot study. Neurology 82:15 (2014), 1302–1306.
86. 86 Bennett, J.L., O'Connor, K.C., Bar-Or, A., et al. B lymphocytes in neuromyelitis optica. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm, 2(3), 2015, e104.
87. 87 Phuan, P.-W., Ratelade, J., Rossi, A., Tradtrantip, L., Verkman, A.S., Complement-dependent cytotoxicity in neuromyelitis optica requires aquaporin-4 protein assembly in orthogonal arrays. J Biol Chem 287:17 (2012), 13829–13839.
88. 88 Matiello, M., Schaefer-Klein, J., Sun, D., Weinshenker, B.G., Aquaporin 4 expression and tissue susceptibility to neuromyelitis optica. JAMA Neurol 70:9 (2013), 1118–1125.
89. 89 Saadoun, S., Papadopoulos, M.C., Role of membrane complement regulators in neuromyelitis optica. Mult Scler 21:13 (2015), 1644–1654.
90. 90 Saadoun, S., Waters, P., MacDonald, C., et al. Neutrophil protease inhibition reduces neuromyelitis optica-immunoglobulin G-induced damage in mouse brain. Ann Neurol 71:3 (2012), 323–333.
91. 91 Zhang, H., Verkman, A.S., Eosinophil pathogenicity mechanisms and therapeutics in neuromyelitis optica. J Clin Invest 123:5 (2013), 2306–2316.
92. 92 Blanc, F., Noblet, V., Jung, B., et al. White matter atrophy and cognitive dysfunctions in neuromyelitis optica. PLoS One, 7(4), 2012, e33878.
93. 93 Weinshenker, B.G., O'Brien, P.C., Petterson, T.M., et al. A randomized trial of plasma exchange in acute central nervous system inflammatory demyelinating disease. Ann Neurol 46:6 (1999), 878–886.
94. 94 Abboud, H., Petrak, A., Mealy, M., Sasidharan, S., Siddique, L., Levy, M., Treatment of acute relapses in neuromyelitis optica: steroids alone versus steroids plus plasma exchange. Mult Scler 22:2 (2016), 185–192.
95. 95 Kleiter, I., Gahlen, A., Borisow, N., et al., Neuromyelitis Optica Study Group. Neuromyelitis optica: evaluation of 871 attacks and 1,153 treatment courses. Ann Neurol 79:2 (2016), 206–216.
96. 96 Wingerchuk, D.M., Weinshenker, B.G., Neuromyelitis optica. Curr Treat Options Neurol 10:1 (2008), 55–66.
97. 97 Ayzenberg, I., Schöllhammer, J., Hoepner, R., et al., Neuromyelitis Optica Study Group. Efficacy of glatiramer acetate in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder: a multicenter retrospective study. J Neurol 263:3 (2016), 575–582.
98. 98 Kimbrough, D.J., Fujihara, K., Jacob, A., et al., GJCF-CC&BR. Treatment of neuromyelitis optica: review and recommendations. Mult Scler Relat Disord 1:4 (2012), 180–187.
99. 99 Mandler, R.N., Ahmed, W., Dencoff, J.E., Devic's neuromyelitis optica: a prospective study of seven patients treated with prednisone and azathioprine. Neurology 51:4 (1998), 1219–1220.
100. 100 Costanzi, C., Matiello, M., Lucchinetti, C.F., et al. Azathioprine: tolerability, efficacy, and predictors of benefit in neuromyelitis optica. Neurology 77:7 (2011), 659–666.
101. 101 Elsone, L., Kitley, J., Luppe, S., et al. Long-term efficacy, tolerability and retention rate of azathioprine in 103 aquaporin-4 antibody-positive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder patients: a multicentre retrospective observational study from the UK. Mult Scler 20:11 (2014), 1533–1540.
102. 102 Jacob, A., Matiello, M., Weinshenker, B.G., et al. Treatment of neuromyelitis optica with mycophenolate mofetil: retrospective analysis of 24 patients. Arch Neurol 66:9 (2009), 1128–1133.
103. 103 Huh, S.Y., Kim, S.H., Hyun, J.W., et al. Mycophenolate mofetil in the treatment of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. JAMA Neurol 71:11 (2014), 1372–1378.
104. 104 Kim, S.H., Huh, S.Y., Lee, S.J., Joung, A., Kim, H.J., A 5-year follow-up of rituximab treatment in patients with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. JAMA Neurol 70:9 (2013), 1110–1117.
105. 105 Jeong, I.H., Park, B., Kim, S.H., Hyun, J.W., Joo, J., Kim, H.J., Comparative analysis of treatment outcomes in patients with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder using multifaceted endpoints. Mult Scler 22:3 (2016), 329–339.
106. 106 Mealy, M.A., Wingerchuk, D.M., Palace, J., Greenberg, B.M., Levy, M., Comparison of relapse and treatment failure rates among patients with neuromyelitis optica: multicenter study of treatment efficacy. JAMA Neurol 71:3 (2014), 324–330.
107. 107 Zéphir, H., Bernard-Valnet, R., Lebrun, C., et al. Rituximab as first-line therapy in neuromyelitis optica: efficiency and tolerability. J Neurol 262:10 (2015), 2329–2335.
108. 108 Watanabe, S., Misu, T., Miyazawa, I., et al. Low-dose corticosteroids reduce relapses in neuromyelitis optica: a retrospective analysis. Mult Scler 13:8 (2007), 968–974.
109. 109 Kitley, J., Elsone, L., George, J., et al. Methotrexate is an alternative to azathioprine in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders with aquaporin-4 antibodies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 84:8 (2013), 918–921.
110. 110 Kim, S.H., Kim, W., Park, M.S., Sohn, E.H., Li, X.F., Kim, H.J., Efficacy and safety of mitoxantrone in patients with highly relapsing neuromyelitis optica. Arch Neurol 68:4 (2011), 473–479.
111. 111 Papadopoulos, M.C., Bennett, J.L., Verkman, A.S., Treatment of neuromyelitis optica: state-of-the-art and emerging therapies. Nat Rev Neurol 10:9 (2014), 493–506.
112. 112 Kleiter, I., Gold, R., Present and future therapies in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Neurotherapeutics 12:1 (2016), 70–83.
113. 113 Ayzenberg, I., Kleiter, I., Schröder, A., et al. Interleukin 6 receptor blockade in patients with neuromyelitis optica nonresponsive to anti-CD20 therapy. JAMA Neurol 70:3 (2013), 394–397.
114. 114 Kieseier, B.C., Stüve, O., Dehmel, T., et al. Disease amelioration with tocilizumab in a treatment-resistant patient with neuromyelitis optica: implication for cellular immune responses. JAMA Neurol 70:3 (2013), 390–393.
115. 115 Kim, S.H., Jeong, I.H., Hyun, J.W., et al. Treatment outcomes with rituximab in 100 patients with neuromyelitis optica: influence of FCGR3A polymorphisms on the therapeutic response to rituximab. JAMA Neurol 72:9 (2015), 989–995.
116. 116 Tradtrantip, L., Zhang, H., Saadoun, S., et al. Anti-aquaporin-4 monoclonal antibody blocker therapy for neuromyelitis optica. Ann Neurol 71:3 (2012), 314–322.
117. 117 Tradtrantip, L., Zhang, H., Anderson, M.O., et al. Small-molecule inhibitors of NMO-IgG binding to aquaporin-4 reduce astrocyte cytotoxicity in neuromyelitis optica. FASEB J 26:5 (2012), 2197–2208.
118. 118 Papadopoulos, M.C., Verkman, A.S., Aquaporin 4 and neuromyelitis optica. Lancet Neurol 11:6 (2012), 535–544.
119. 119 Zamvil, S.S., Slavin, A.J., Does MOG Ig-positive AQP4-seronegative opticospinal inflammatory disease justify a diagnosis of NMO spectrum disorder?. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm, 2(1), 2015, e62.