Sidelined by design: Egypt’s parliament in transition

Journal of North African Studies

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 2017, Pages 595-619

  Völkel, Jan Claudius ^a,b  

^a VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT BRUSSEL   (Belgium)

^b Cairo University   (Egypt)

Author keywords

Arab Spring; democratisation; Egypt; elections; parliament

Indexed keywords

ARAB WORLD; DEMOCRATIZATION; ELECTION; ELECTORAL SYSTEM; PARLIAMENT; POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT; POPULAR PROTEST;

EGYPT;

EID: 85014602884     PISSN: 13629387     EISSN: 17439345     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13629387.2017.1297234     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. Abdelrahman, Maha., 2015. Egypt’s Long Revolution. Protest Movements and Uprisings. Abingdon:Routledge.
2. Abd Rabou, Ahmed., 2013. “Egypt’s Parliament in the 2013 Constitution:Why We Should Go for a Bicameral Legislature.” In Parliament in the New Egyptian Constitution, edited by Arab Forum for Alternatives, 43–50. Cairo:Arab Forum for Alternatives. http://afaegypt.org/English/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&task=download&id=56_9012e6c01204cb01a9cc8f9c7188d95b.
3. Abd Rabou, Ahmed., 2014. “Lost in Translation:The Role of the Egyptian Parliament 2011–2013.” Paper presented at the ‘Underrated legislatures:Role and potential of national parliaments in times of transition’ conference, Berlin, November 4–8.
4. Abd Rabou, Ahmed., 2015. The Absence of a Legislative Body and the Future of Politics in Egypt. Paris:Arab Reform Initiative. http://www.arab-reform.net/sites/default/files/20150518_AbuRabou_formatted%20final_0.pdf.
5. Abul-Magd, Zeinab., 2013. The Egyptian Military in Politics and the Economy:Recent History and Current Transition Status. CMI Insights 2. https://www.cmi.no/publications/file/4935-the-egyptian-military-in-politics-and-the-economy.pdf.
6. Afifi, Hana., 2015. “Egypt Elections:Some Aren’t Running, Some Are Boycotting, and This Is Why.” Al-Ahram, October 19. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/164/155967/Egypt/Egypt-Elections-/-Some-arent-running,-some-are-boycotting,-and-this.aspx.
7. Afify, Heba., 2015. “Law Passed to Protect Parliament from Dissolution.” Mada Masr, June 24. http://www.madamasr.com/news/politics/law-passed-protect-parliament-dissolution.
8. Al-Ahram Online. 2012. “Army Articles Approved by Constituent Assembly.” Al-Ahram, November 28. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/59403/Egypt/Politics-/Army-articles-approved-by-Constituent-Assembly-.aspx.
9. Albrecht, Holger., 2008. “The Nature of Political Participation.” In Political Participation in the Middle East, edited by Ellen, Lust-Okar, and Saloua, Zerhouni, 15–32. Boulder, CO:Lynne Rienner.
10. Alexander, Anne., 2011. “Brothers-in-Arms? The Egyptian Military, the Ikhwan and the Revolutions of 1952 and 2011.” The Journal of North African Studies 16 (4):533–554. doi:10.1080/13629387.2011.630876
11. Al-Jazeera. 2014. “Egypt’s Parliament Ramshackle in the New Constitution.” Al-Jazeera, January 4. http://www.aljazeera.net/mob/f6451603-4dff-4ca1-9c10-122741d17432/c43c4741-3c71-4892-bda6-0d63371ba9b5.
12. Auf, Yussef., 2012. “The System of Government in Egypt’s Draft Constitution.” Atlantic Council MENA Source Blog, September 13. http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/the-system-of-government-in-egypt-s-draft-constitution.
13. Ayyad, Mohammed., 2014. “Legislators Inundated by Conflicting Laws, Reform Committee ‘Necessary’:Expert.” Daily News Egypt, June 25. http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/06/25/legislators-inundated-conflicting-laws-reform-committee-necessary-expert/.
14. Baaklini, Abdo, Guilain, Denoeux, and Robert, Springborg, eds. 1999. Legislative Politics in the Arab World:The Resurgence of Democratic Institutions. Boulder, CO:Lynne Rienner.
15. Bahaa-Eldin, Ziad., 2016. “Egypt:What Does the Mockery of Parliament Serve?” Al-Ahram, March 13. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContentP/4/190859/Opinion/Egypt-What-does-the-mockery-of-parliament-serve.aspx.
16. Bahgat, Hossam., 2016. “Anatomy of an Election. How Egypt’s 2015 Parliament Was Elected to Maintain the Loyalty to the President.” Mada Masr, March 14. http://www.madamasr.com/sections/politics/anatomy-election.
17. Bahi, Riham, and Jan Claudius, Völkel. 2014. “The Surprising Success of the Tunisian Parliament.” Open Democracy, January 31. https://www.opendemocracy.net/arab-awakening/riham-bahi-jan-v%c3%b6lkel/surprising-success-of-tunisian-parliament.
18. Blaydes, Lisa., 2011. Elections and Distributive Politics in Mubarak’s Egypt. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
19. Brown, Nathan., 2015. “Viewpoint:Egypt’s New Parliament—Posturing Without Politics.” BBC, December 7. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35004054.
20. Brumberg, Daniel., 2002. “The Trap of Liberalized Autocracy.” Journal of Democracy 13 (4):56–68. doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0064
21. Büchs, Annette., 2012. Wahlsieg der Islamisten in Ägypten:Der Aufstieg der Muslimbrüder und Salafisten. Hamburg:German Institute for Global and Area Studies. http://www.giga-hamburg.de/de/system/files/publications/gf_nahost_1201.pdf.
22. Chams El-Dine, Chérine., 2014. Fragile Alliances in Egypt’s Post-revolutionary Order. The Military and Its Partners. SWP Comments 46. Berlin:Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik. http://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/comments/2014C46_chams_el_dine.pdf.
23. Cheibub, Jose A., 2006. Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, and Democracy. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
24. Dawoud, Khaled., 2015. Egypt’s Parties Face Marginalization Once Again. Washington:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. http://carnegieendowment.org/sada/2015/07/23/egypt-s-parties-face-marginalization-once-more/idua.
25. Dunne, Michele, and Mara, Revkin. 2011. Overview of Egypt’s Constitutional Referendum. Washington, DC:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. http://carnegieendowment.org/2011/03/16/overview-of-egypt-s-constitutional-referendum.
26. Easton, David., 1965. A Systems Analysis of Political Life. New York:John Wiley & Sons.
27. Egyptian, Streets., 2016. “Egypt’s Parliamentary Speaker Stirs Controversy Over Threats Against MPs Discussing Monetary Policy.” Egyptian Streets, May 24. http://egyptianstreets.com/2016/05/24/egypts-parliamentary-speaker-stirs-controversy-over-threats-against-mps-discussing-monetary-policy/.
28. El-Fekki, Amira., 2015a. “Absence of Parliament Threatens Transparency of State Budget:Report.” Daily News Egypt, June 22. http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2015/06/22/absence-of-parliament-threatens-transparency-of-state-budget-report/.
29. El-Fekki, Amira., 2015b. “Electoral Law Passed, 2 Remain for Egypt’s Parliament.” Daily News Egypt, July 12. https://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2015/07/12/electoral-law-passed-2-remain-for-egypts-parliament/.
30. El-Fekki, Amira., 2016. “Parliament Announces End of Legislative Year.” Daily News Egypt, September 6. http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2016/09/06/parliament-announces-end-of-legislative-year/.
31. Elgie, Robert., 2005. “Variations on a Theme.” Journal of Democracy 16 (3):98–112. doi:10.1353/jod.2005.0045
32. Elgie, Robert., 2012. “Presidentialism, Parliamentarism and Semi-presidentialism:Bringing Parties Back In.” Government and Opposition 46 (3):424–441.
33. El-Gobashy, Mona., 2011. “The Praxis of the Egyptian Revolution.” Middle East Report 41 (1), 258. http://www.merip.org/mer/mer258/praxis-egyptian-revolution.
34. El-Kholy, Ismael., 2015. “Egypt’s Cash for Votes Scandal.” Al-Monitor, December 17. http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/12/egypt-parliament-elections-bribe-candidates.html.
35. El-Sawi, Ali., 2000. A Development Agenda for Arab Parliaments. Beirut:Lebanese Center for Policy Studies. http://www.agora-parl.org/sites/default/files/undp-pogar_-_a_development_agenda_for_arab_parliaments_-_06.2000_-_en_-_pi.pdf.
36. El-Sawi, Ali., 2003. Parliamentary Reform. Faculty of Economics and Political Science, Cairo University. http://www.kas.de/db_files/dokumente/7_dokument_dok_pdf_4536_1.pdf.
37. Eltahawy, Mona., 2012. “Why Do They Hate Us? The Real War on Women Is in the Middle East.” Foreign Policy, April 23. http://foreignpolicy.com/2012/04/23/why-do-they-hate-us/.
38. Essam El-Din, Gamal., 2014. “Egypt’s Opposition Threatens Boycott of Parliamentary Elections Over Draft Laws.” Al-Ahram Online, June 2. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContentPrint/1/0/102774/Egypt/0/Egypts-opposition-threatens-boycott-of-parliamenta.aspx.
39. Essam El-Din, Gamal., 2015. “Proposed Amendments to Egypt Electoral Law See Number of MPs Increased.” Al-Ahram Online, April 14. http://english.ahram.org.eg/WriterArticles/NewsContentP/1/127679/Egypt/Proposed-amendments-to-Egypt-electoral-law-see-num.aspx.
40. Essam El-Din, Gamal., 2016a. “Businessmen MPs Could form Lobby in Egypt’s New Parliament.” Al-Ahram, April 30. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/205784/Egypt/Politics-/Businessmen-MPs-could-form-lobby-in-Egypts-new-par.aspx.
41. Essam El-Din, Gamal., 2016b. “Egypt MPs Warn Harsh Economic Measures could Spark Street Protests.” Al-Ahram, February 21. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/0/188165/Egypt/0/Egypt-MPs-warn-harsh-economic-measures-could-spark.aspx.
42. Essam El-Din, Gamal., 2016c. “Leading Posts in Egypt Parliament’s 25 Committees to be Elected Saturday.” Al-Ahram, April 20. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/204033/Egypt/Politics-/Leading-posts-in-Egypt-parliament%E2%80%99s--committees-to.aspx.
43. Essam El-Din, Gamal., 2016d. “Egypt MP Sadat Resigns as Head of Parliament’s Human Rights Committee.” Al-Ahram, August 30. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/242027/Egypt/Politics-/Egypt-MP-Sadat-resigns-as-head-of-%E2%80%8Eparliaments-hum.aspx.
44. Eulau, Heinz., 1942. “Early Theories of Parliamentarism.” The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science 8 (1):33–55. doi:10.2307/136998
45. European Commission. 2013. Implementation of the European Neighbourhood Policy in Egypt. Progress in 2012 and Recommendations for Action. SWD(2013) 89 Final. Brussels:European Commission. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=SWD:2013:0089:FIN:EN:PDF.
46. Faris, David., 2012. “Constituting Institutions:The Electoral System in Egypt.” Middle East Policy 19 (1):140–154. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4967.2012.00530.x
47. Fleishman, Jeffrey., 2012. “Onetime Mubarak Foes Move Closer to Power as Egyptians Vote Again.” Los Angeles Times, January 3. http://articles.latimes.com/2012/jan/03/world/la-fg-egypt-mubarak-elections-20120104.
48. Freedom House. 2015. Discarding Democracy:Return to the Iron Fist. Freedom in the World 2015. New York:Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/01152015_FIW_2015_final.pdf.
49. Guirguis, Dina., 2011. Egypt Opposition Divided Over New Political Parties Law. Washington:The Washington Institute. http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/egypt-opposition-divided-over-new-political-parties-law.
50. Hamzawy, Amr., 2012. “A Parliament for Fire Extinguishing (in Arabic).” Al-Shorouk, February 24. http://www.shorouknews.com/columns/view.aspx?id=f1032433-0390-4828-bb6c-232ff55a9f0d.
51. Hassan, Mazen., 2011. “The Effects of Egypt’s Election Law.” Foreign Policy, November 1. http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/11/01/the-effects-of-egypts-election-law/.
52. Hassan, Mazen., 2013a. “Institutional Factors Affecting Party Systems in New Democracies:Endogenous or Exogenous Predictors?” Democratization 20 (4):668–692. doi:10.1080/13510347.2012.659022
53. Hassan, Mazen., 2013b. “Elections of the People’s Assembly, Egypt 2011/12.” Electoral Studies 32 (2):370–374. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2012.12.005
54. Hassan, Khalid., 2016. “Is Discussing Military Budget Taboo in Egypt?” Al-Monitor, August 11. http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/08/egypt-parliament-debate-military-budget-pension-increase.html.
55. Helms, Ludger., 2008. “Studying Parliamentary Opposition in Old and New Democracies:Issues and Perspectives.” The Journal of Legislative Studies 14 (1/2):6–19. doi:10.1080/13572330801920788
56. Herb, Michael., 2004. “Princes and Parliaments in the Arab World.” Middle East Journal 58 (3):367–384. doi:10.3751/58.3.12
57. Hidji, Ahmed., 2016. “Just How Independent Is Egypt’s Parliament?” Al-Monitor, May 9. http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/05/egypt-parliament-speaker-statements-president-government.html.
58. Houle, Christian., 2009. “Inequality and Democracy:Why Inequality Harms Consolidation But Does Not Affect Democratization.” World Politics 61 (4):589–622. doi:10.1017/S0043887109990074
59. Hussein, Walaa., 2016. “This Big-Mouthed Puppet Has Enraged Egypt’s Parliament.” Al-Monitor, April 22. http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/04/egypt-parliament-tv-show-abla-fahita-legal-action-sisi.html#.
60. Ibrahim, Saad Eddin., 2007. “Toward Muslim Democracies.” Journal of Democracy 18 (2):5–13. doi:10.1353/jod.2007.0025
61. International Crisis Group. 2013. Marching in Circles:Egypt’s Dangerous Second Transition. Middle East/North Africa Briefing N°35, August 7. Brussels:International Crisis Group. http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/North%20Africa/Egypt/b035-marching-in-circles-egypts-dangerous-second-transition.pdf.
62. Joffé, George., 2011. “The Arab Spring in North Africa:Origins and Prospects.” The Journal of North African Studies 16 (4):507–532. doi:10.1080/13629387.2011.630881
63. Ketterer, James P., 2001. “From One Chamber to Two:The Case of Morocco.” The Journal of Legislative Studies 7 (1):135–150. doi:10.1080/714003853
64. Khashan, Hilal., 2012. “The Eclipse of Arab Authoritarianism and the Challenge of Popular Sovereignty.” Third World Quarterly 33 (5):919–930. doi:10.1080/01436597.2012.687509
65. Kingsley, Patrick., 2015. “Egypt’s Parliamentary Elections Set to be Delayed by New Legal Battle.” The Guardian, March 1. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/01/egypt-parliamentary-elections-to-be-postponed-by-new-legal-setback.
66. Kirkpatrick, David D., 2014. “Egyptian Election Law Helps to Block Opposition.” New York Times, June 6. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/07/world/middleeast/egyptian-election-law-blocks-opposition-to-supporters-of-the-muslim-brotherhood.html?_r=0.
67. Landau, Jacob., 1953/2016. Parliaments and Parties in Egypt. Abingdon:Routledge.
68. Langohr, Vickie., 2002. “An Exit from Arab Autocracy.” Journal of Democracy 13 (3):116–122. doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0048
69. Langohr, Vickie., 2004. “Too Much Civil Society, Too Little Politics:Egypt and Liberalizing Arab Regimes.” Comparative Politics 36 (2):181–204. doi:10.2307/4150142
70. Levinson, Charles, and Tamer, El-Ghobashy. 2011. “Key Clans Hold Sway in Egypt Elections.” The Wall Street Journal, November 28. http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203935604577064033849808346.
71. Lijphart, Arend., 1984. Democracies:Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Government in Twenty-one Countries. New Haven, CT:Yale University Press.
72. Lijphart, Arend., 2004. “Constitutional Design for Divided Societies.” Journal of Democracy 15 (2):96–109. doi:10.1353/jod.2004.0029
73. Linz, Juan., 1990. “The Perils of Presidentialism.” Journal of Democracy 1 (4):51–69. doi:10.1353/jod.1990.0059
74. Lust, Ellen., 2009. “Competitive Clientelism in the Middle East.” Journal of Democracy 20 (3):122–135. doi:10.1353/jod.0.0099
75. Lust-Okar, Ellen, and Saloua, Zerhouni, eds. 2008. Political Participation in the Middle East. Boulder, CO:Lynne Rienner.
76. Maher, Hatem., 2011. “Several Political Figures and Coalitions Boycott Campaigning after Police Crackdown in Tahrir.” Al-Ahram Online, November 20. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/27051/Egypt/Politics-/Several-political-figures-and-coalitions-boycott-c.aspx.
77. Martini, Jeffrey, and Stephen M., Worman. 2013. Voting Patterns in Post-Mubarak Egypt. Santa Monica:Rand Corporation. http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR223.html.
78. Masoud, Tarek., 2014. Counting Islam. Religion, Class, and Elections in Egypt. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
79. Meringolo, Azzurra., 2013. “Revolutionary, Creative, Heterogeneous and Unorganized:Young Egyptians Facing Elections.” Égypte Monde Arabe 10. http://ema.revues.org/3132.
80. Mihalakas, Nasos., 2012. SCAF’s Constitutional Declaration—Uncertainty and Hope for Egypt’s Bicameral Legislature. Foreign Policy Association, February 27. http://foreignpolicyblogs.com/2012/02/27/scafs-constitutional-declaration-uncertainty-hope-egypts-bicameral-legislature/.
81. Mikhail, George., 2016. “100 Days on, Egypt’s Parliament Has Seen Few Achievements, Much Controversy.” Al-Monitor, April 26. http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/en/originals/2016/04/egypt-parliament-100-days-controversy-sisi-acheivement.html#.
82. Muasher, Marwan., 2013. The Path to Sustainable Political Parties in the Arab World. Washington, DC:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. http://carnegieendowment.org/files/sustainable_arab_polit_parties.pdf.
83. Mühlberger, Wolfgang., 2016. “Egypt:Pharaonic Politics Redux?” Al-Jazeera, February 16. http://studies.aljazeera.net/en/reports/2016/02/2016216114532615382.html.
84. Ottaway, Marina., 2012a. Who Will Write the Egyptian Constitution? Washington, DC:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. http://carnegieendowment.org/2012/03/13/who-will-write-egyptian-constitution.
85. Ottaway, Marina., 2012b. Egypt:Death of the Constituent Assembly? Washington, DC:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. http://carnegieendowment.org/2012/06/13/egypt-death-of-constituent-assembly.
86. Ottaway, Marina., 2012c. Egypt’s Transition:Finding a Way Out of the Vicious Circle. Washington, DC:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. http://carnegieendowment.org/2012/02/06/egypt-s-transition-finding-way-out-of-vicious-circle/buy7.
87. Palonen, Kari, and José María, Rosales. 2015. “Introduction:The Theory and Practice of Parliamentary Democracy.” In Parliamentarism and Democratic Theory. Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, edited by Kari, Palonen, and José María, Rosales, 11–30. Opladen:Barbara Budrich Publishers.
88. Powell, Bingham G., 2004. “The Chain of Responsiveness.” Journal of Democracy 15 (4):91–105. doi:10.1353/jod.2004.0070
89. Rabeea, Amr H., 2012. “The Parliament of Chatter.” El-Watan, May 2. http://www.elwatannews.com/news/details/919.
90. Ramadan, Abd Elkader., 2015. “Businessmen Occupy Fifth of House of Representatives, Topping Mubarak-Era Number.” Aswat Masriya, December 8. http://en.aswatmasriya.com/news/details/13580.
91. Reilly, Ben., 2002. “Electoral Systems for Divided Societies.” Journal of Democracy 13 (2):156–170. doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0029
92. Roll, Stephan., 2016. “Managing Change:How Egypt’s Military Leadership Shaped the Transformation.” Mediterranean Politics 21 (1):23–43. doi:10.1080/13629395.2015.1081452
93. Romani, Eva., 2016. “150 Years on Egypt’s Parliament.” Watani, October 12. http://en.wataninet.com/features_1/new-stamp-commemorates-150-years-of-parliament-in-egypt-2/17652.
94. Roy, Olivier., 2012. “The Transformation of the Arab World.” Journal of Democracy 23 (3):5–18. doi:10.1353/jod.2012.0056
95. Sadiki, Larbi., 2010. “Wither Arab ‘Republicanism’? The Rise of Family Rule and the ‘End of Democratization’ in Egypt, Libya and Yemen.” Mediterranean Politics 15 (1):99–107. doi:10.1080/13629391003644827
96. Saied, Mohamed., 2016. “Is Egypt’s Former Ruling Party Making a Comeback?” Al-Monitor, May 13. http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/05/egypt-parliament-ndp-party-mubarak-return-committee.html.
97. Samir, Samar., 2014. “SCLR Is Transitional Parliament, Lacks Legislative Authority:Experts.” Cairo Post, June 22. http://thecairopost.youm7.com/news/115877/inside_egypt/sclr-is-transitional-parliament-lacks-legislative-authority-experts.
98. Sayigh, Yezid., 2009. ‘Fixing Broken Windows’:Security Sector Reform in Palestine, Lebanon, and Yemen. Washington, DC:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. http://carnegieendowment.org/files/security_sector_reform.pdf.
99. Siaroff, Alan., 2003. “Comparative Presidencies:The Inadequacy of the Presidential, Semi-presidential and Parliamentary Distinction.” European Journal of Political Research 42 (3):287–312. doi:10.1111/1475-6765.00084
100. Stepan, Alfred., 2012. “Tunisia’s Transition and the Twin Tolerations.” Journal of Democracy 23 (2):89–103. doi:10.1353/jod.2012.0034
101. Taha, Rana Muhammad., 2014. “Amended, Draft Parliamentary Elections Law Referred Back to Cabinet.” Daily News Egypt, June 4. http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/06/04/amended-draft-parliamentary-elections-law-referred-back-cabinet/.
102. Tavana, Daniel L., 2011. “Party Proliferation and Electoral Transition in Post-Mubarak Egypt.” Journal of North African Studies 16 (4):555–571. doi:10.1080/13629387.2011.639142
103. Tayel, Abeer., 2012. “Egypt’s Women Urge MPs Not to Pass Early Marriage, Sex-after-death Laws:Report.” Al-Arabiya, April 25. https://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/04/25/210198.html.
104. Tessler, Mark, Amaney, Jamal, and Michael, Robbins. 2012. “New Findings on Arabs and Democracy.” Journal of Democracy 23 (4):89–103. doi:10.1353/jod.2012.0066
105. Teti, Andrea, and Gennaro, Gervasio. 2011. “The Politics of Egypt’s Elections.” Open Democracy, December 5. https://www.opendemocracy.net/arab-awakening/andrea-teti-gennaro-gervasio/politics-of-egypt%E2%80%99s-elections.
106. Tsebelis, George., 1995. “Decision Making in Political Systems:Veto Players in Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, Multicameralism and Multipartyism.” British Journal of Political Science 25 (3):289–325. doi:10.1017/S0007123400007225
107. Völkel, Jan Claudius., 2013. “Underrated Legislations:Arab Parliaments Could Play a Crucial Transformational Role.” Open Democracy, July 3. https://www.opendemocracy.net/jan-v%C3%B6lkel/underrated-legislations-arab-parliaments-could-play-crucial-transformational-role.
108. Völkel, Jan Claudius., 2016. Die Dominanz der Barbarei. Regionalbericht Naher Osten und Nordafrika. Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2016. https://www.bti-project.org/fileadmin/files/BTI/Downloads/Reports/2016/pdf_regional/BTI_2016_Regionalbericht_MENA.pdf.
109. Volpi, Frédéric., 2004. “Pseudo-democracy in the Muslim World.” Third World Quarterly 25 (6):1061–1078. doi:10.1080/0143659042000256896
110. Volpi, Frédéric., 2013. “Explaining (and Re-explaining) Political Change in the Middle East During the Arab Spring:Trajectories of Democratization and of Authoritarianism in the Maghreb.” Democratization 20 (6):969–990. doi:10.1080/13510347.2012.668438
111. Wessel, Sarah., 2013. “The Legitimate, Illegitimate Parliamentary Elections.” Égypte Monde Arabe 10. http://ema.revues.org/3089.
112. Wille, David., 2016. “Does a New Parliament Signal a Shift for Egypt?” Global Risk Insight, January 21. http://globalriskinsights.com/2016/01/does-a-new-parliament-signal-a-shift-for-egypt/.
113. Youssef, Hoda., 2012. Fiscal Manipulation in Non-democratic Regimes:The Case of Egypt. Working Paper 703. Cairo:The Economic Research Forum. http://erf.org.eg/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/703.pdf.