Clinical practice with anti-dementia drugs: A revised (third) consensus statement from the British Association for Psychopharmacology

Journal of Psychopharmacology

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2017, Pages 147-168

  O'Brien, John T ^a   Holmes, Clive ^b   Jones, Matthew ^c,d   Jones, Roy ^e,f   Livingston, Gill ^g   McKeith, Ian ^h   Mittler, Peter ^d   Passmore, Peter ⁱ   Ritchie, Craig ^j   Robinson, Louise ^h   Sampson, Elizabeth L ^g   Taylor, John Paul ^h   Thomas, Alan ^h   Burns, Alistair ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON   (United Kingdom)

^c SALFORD ROYAL NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

^e Research Institute for the Care of Older People   (United Kingdom)

^f UNIVERSITY OF BATH   (United Kingdom)

^g UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^h NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

ⁱ QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY BELFAST   (United Kingdom)

^j UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

more..

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; Dementia; frontotemporal; guidelines; Lewy; management; treatment; vascular

Indexed keywords

ALZHEIMER DISEASE VACCINE; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; BAPINEUZUMAB; CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITOR; CRENEZUMAB; CYANOCOBALAMIN; DIMEBON; DONEPEZIL; DOXYCYCLINE; ESTROGEN; FOLIC ACID; GALANTAMINE; GANTENERUMAB; GESTAGEN; GINKGO BILOBA EXTRACT; HUPERZINE A; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INDOMETACIN; MEMANTINE; MEPACRINE; NAFTIDROFURYL; NAPROXEN; NIMODIPINE; NOOTROPIC AGENT; OXYTOCIN; PLACEBO; RIVASTIGMINE; SOLANEZUMAB; TACRINE; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; BRAIN EDEMA; CEREBROSPINAL FLUID ANALYSIS; CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONSENSUS DEVELOPMENT; CORTICOBASAL DEGENERATION; CREUTZFELDT JAKOB DISEASE; DEMENTIA; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIET THERAPY; DIETARY SUPPLEMENT; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DIFFUSE LEWY BODY DISEASE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; FRONTOTEMPORAL DEMENTIA; GINKGO BILOBA; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; MEDICAL SOCIETY; MENINGOENCEPHALITIS; MILD COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT; MULTIINFARCT DEMENTIA; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PARKINSON DISEASE; PATIENT ATTITUDE; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIMARY MEDICAL CARE; PRIMARY PROGRESSIVE APHASIA; PRION DISEASE; PROGRESSIVE SUPRANUCLEAR PALSY; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY; TERMINAL CARE; THERAPY EFFECT; TRANSCRANIAL DIRECT CURRENT STIMULATION; TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; VACCINATION; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION; MULTIMODALITY CANCER THERAPY; PROCEDURES; PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITORS; COMBINED MODALITY THERAPY; DEMENTIA; HUMANS; MEMANTINE; PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY;

EID: 85011818912     PISSN: 02698811     EISSN: 14617285     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0269881116680924     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Aarsland D, Ballard C, Walker Z, et al. (2009) Memantine in patients with Parkinson's disease dementia or dementia with Lewy bodies: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Lancet Neurol 8: 613-618.
2. Albert MS, DeKosky ST, Dickson D, et al. (2011) The diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer's disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 7: 270-279.
3. Alzheimer's Disease Anti-inflammatory Prevention Trial Research Group (2013) Results of a follow-up study to the randomized Alzheimer's Disease Anti-inflammatory Prevention Trial (ADAPT). Alzheimers Dement 9: 714-723.
4. American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV-TR). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
5. American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5®). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association.
6. Ancelin ML, Artero S, Portet F, et al. (2006) Non-degenerative mild cognitive impairment in elderly people and use of anticholinergic drugs: Longitudinal cohort study. BMJ 332: 455-459.
7. Anderson IM, Ferrier IN, Baldwin RC, et al. (2008) Evidence-based guidelines for treating depressive disorders with antidepressants: A revision of the 2000 British Association for Psychopharmacology guidelines. J Psychopharmacol 22: 343-96.
8. Angus D, Herd C, Stone C, et al. (2015) Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of PBT2 in Huntington's disease: A phase 2, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 14: 39-47.
9. Auchus AP, Brashear HR, Salloway S, et al. (2007) Galantamine treatment of vascular dementia: A randomized trial. Neurology 69: 448-458.
10. Aupperle PM, Coyne AC, (2000) Primary vs subspecialty care: A structured follow-up of dementia patients and their caregivers. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 8: 167-170.
11. Aupperle PM, MacPhee ER, Coyne AC, et al. (2003) Health service utilization by Alzheimer's disease patients: A 2-year follow-up of primary versus subspecialty care. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 16: 15-17.
12. Bamford C, Poole M, Brittain K, et al. (2014) Understanding the challenges to implementing case management for people with dementia in primary care in England: A qualitative study using Normalization Process Theory. BMC Health Serv Res 14: 549-560.
13. Baskys A, Cheng J, (2012) Pharmacological prevention and treatment of vascular dementia: Approaches and perspectives. Exp Gerontol 47: 887-891.
14. Baskys A, Hou AC, (2007) Vascular dementia: Pharmacological treatment approaches and perspectives. Clin Interv Aging 2: 327-335.
15. Birks J, Flicker L, (2006) Donepezil for mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3: CD006104.
16. Bocti C, Black S, Frank C, (2007) Management of dementia with a cerebrovascular component. Alzheimers Dement 3: 398-403.
17. Boggio PS, Valasek CA, Campanhã C, et al. (2011) Non-invasive brain stimulation to assess and modulate neuroplasticity in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychol Rehabil 21: 703-716.
18. Boot BP, (2015) Comprehensive treatment of dementia with Lewy bodies. Alzheimers Res Ther 7: 45-52.
19. Boxer AL, Knopman DS, Kaufer DI, et al. (2013) Memantine in patients with frontotemporal lobar degeneration: A multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 12: 149-156.
20. Boxer AL, Lang AE, Grossman M, et al. (2014) Davunetide in patients with progressive supranuclear palsy: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2/3 trial. Lancet Neurol 13: 676-685.
21. Brayne C, Gao L, Dewey M, et al. (2006) Dementia before death in ageing societies-the promise of prevention and the reality. PLoS Med 3: 1922-1930.
22. British Psychological Society (2014) A Guide to Psychosocial Interventions in Early Stages of Dementia. Available at: https://www.bps.org.uk/system/files/user-files/DCP%20Faculty%20for%20the%20Psychology%20of%20Older%20People%20(FPoP)/public/a-guide-to-psychosocial-interventions-in-dementia.pdf (. accessed 3 March 2016).
23. Burns A, O'Brien J, (2006) Clinical practice with anti-dementia drugs: A consensus statement from British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol 20: 732-755.
24. Burton EJ, Barber R, Mukaetova-Ladinska EB, et al. (2009) Medial temporal lobe atrophy on MRI differentiates Alzheimer's disease from dementia with Lewy bodies and vascular cognitive impairment: A prospective study with pathological verification of diagnosis. Brain 132: 195-203.
25. Butchart J, Brook L, Hopkins V, et al. (2015) Etanercept in Alzheimer disease: A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, phase 2 trial. Neurology 84: 2161-2168.
26. Cardwell K, Hughes CM, Ryan C, (2015) The association between anticholinergic medication burden and health related outcomes in the 'oldest old': A systematic review of the literature. Drugs Aging 32: 835-848.
27. Chau S, Herrmann N, Ruthirakuhan MT, et al. (2015) Latrepirdine for Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4: CD009524.
28. Colloby SJ, Firbank MJ, Pakrasi S, et al. (2008) A comparison of 99mTc-exametazime and 123I-FP-CIT SPECT imaging in the differential diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies. Int Psychogeriatr 20: 1124-1140.
29. 2) in Alzheimer's disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 33: 341-353.
30. DeKosky ST, Williamson JD, Fitzpatrick AL, et al. (2008) Ginkgo biloba for prevention of dementia: A randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Assoc 300: 2253-2262.
31. Dichgans M, Markus HS, Salloway S, et al. (2008) Donepezil in patients with subcortical vascular cognitive impairment: A randomised double-blind trial in CADASIL. Lancet Neurol 7: 310-318.
32. Dodge HH, Zitzelberger T, Oken BS, et al. (2008) A randomized placebo-controlled trial of Ginkgo biloba for the prevention of cognitive decline. Neurology 70: 1809-1817.
33. Doody RS, Gavrilova SI, Sano M, et al. (2008) Effect of dimebon on cognition, activities of daily living, behaviour, and global function in patients with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet 372: 207-215.
34. Dubois B, Feldman HH, Jacova C, et al. (2007) Research criteria for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: Revising the NINCDS-ADRDA criteria. Lancet Neurol 6: 734-746.
35. Dubois B, Feldman HH, Jacova C, et al. (2010) Revising the definition of Alzheimer's disease: A new lexicon. Lancet Neurol 9: 1118-1127.
36. Dubois B, Feldman HH, Jacova C, et al. (2014) Advancing research diagnostic criteria for Alzheimer's disease: The IWG-2 criteria. Lancet Neurol 13: 614-629.
37. Elder GJ, Taylor J-P, (2014) Transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation: Treatments for cognitive and neuropsychiatric symptoms in the neurodegenerative dementias? Alzheimers Res Ther 6: 74-84.
38. Emre M, Aarsland D, Albanese A, et al. (2004) Rivastigmine for dementia associated with Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med 351: 2509-2518.
39. Emre M, Aarsland D, Brown R, et al. (2007) Clinical diagnostic criteria for dementia associated with Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 22: 1689-1707.
40. Emre M, Tsolaki M, Bonuccelli U, et al. (2010) Memantine for patients with Parkinson's disease dementia or dementia with Lewy bodies: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 9: 969-977.
41. Erkinjuntti T, Kurz A, Gauthier S, et al. (2002) Efficacy of galantamine in probable vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease combined with cerebrovascular disease: A randomised trial. Lancet 359: 1283-1290.
42. Finger EC, MacKinley J, Blair M, et al. (2015) Oxytocin for frontotemporal dementia: A randomized dose-finding study of safety and tolerability. Neurology 84: 174-181.
43. Flicker L, Grimley Evans G, (2001) Piracetam for dementia or cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2: CD001011.
44. Ford AH, Almeida OP, (2012) Effect of homocysteine lowering treatment on cognitive function: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Alzheimers Dis 29: 133-149.
45. Fox C, Livingston G, Maidment ID, et al. (2011a) The impact of anticholinergic burden in Alzheimer's dementia-the LASER-AD study. Age Ageing 40: 730-735.
46. Fox C, Richardson K, Maidment ID, et al.(2011b) Anticholinergic medication use and cognitive impairment in the older population: The Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study. J Am Geriatr Soc 59: 1477-1483.
47. Gauthier S, Schlaefke S, (2014) Efficacy and tolerability of Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761® in dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Clin Interv Aging 9: 2065-2077.
48. Geschwind MD, Kuo AL, Wong KS, et al. (2013) Quinacrine treatment trial for sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease. Neurology 81: 2015-2023.
49. Ghezzi L, Scarpini E, Galimberti D, (2013) Disease-modifying drugs in Alzheimer's disease. Drug Des Devel Ther 7: 1471-1478.
50. Gill SS, Anderson GM, Fischer HD, et al. (2009) Syncope and its consequences in patients with dementia receiving cholinesterase inhibitors: A population-based cohort study. Arch Intern Med 169: 867-873.
51. Goldman JG, Weintraub D, (2015) Advances in the treatment of cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 30: 1471-1489.
52. Gorno-Tempini ML, Hillis AE, Weintraub S, et al. (2011) Classification of primary progressive aphasia and its variants. Neurology 76: 1006-1014.
53. Gray SL, Anderson ML, Dublin S, et al. (2015) Cumulative use of strong anticholinergics and incident dementia: A prospective cohort study. JAMA Intern Med 175: 401-407.
54. Haïk S, Marcon G, Mallet A, et al. (2014) Doxycycline in Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease: A phase 2, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 13: 150-158.
55. Hao Z, Liu M, Liu Z, et al. (2009) Huperzine A for vascular dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2: CD007365.
56. Harris JM, Jones M, (2014) Pathology in primary progressive aphasia syndromes. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 148: 466.
57. Heneka MT, Carson MJ, Khoury J El, et al. (2015) Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease. Lancet Neurol 14: 388-405.
58. Ho RCM, Cheung MWL, Fu E, et al. (2011) Is high homocysteine level a risk factor for cognitive decline in elderly? A systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 19: 607-617.
59. Holmes HM, Sachs GA, Shega JW, et al. (2008) Integrating palliative medicine into the care of persons with advanced dementia: Identifying appropriate medication use. J Am Geriatr Soc 56: 1306-1311.
60. Hort J, O'Brien JT, Gainotti G, et al. (2010) EFNS guidelines for the diagnosis and management of Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurol 17: 1236-1248.
61. Horvath JC, Carter O, Forte JD, (2014) Transcranial direct current stimulation: Five important issues we aren't discussing (but probably should be). Front Syst Neurosci 8: 2-9.
62. Horvath JC, Forte JD, Carter O, (2015) Quantitative review finds no evidence of cognitive effects in healthy populations from single-session transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Brain Stimul 8: 535-550.
63. Howard R, McShane R, Lindesay J, et al. (2012) Donepezil and memantine for moderate-to-severe Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 366: 893-903.
64. Howard R, McShane R, Lindesay J, et al. (2015) Nursing home placement in the Donepezil and Memantine in Moderate to Severe Alzheimer's Disease (DOMINO-AD) trial: Secondary and post-hoc analyses. Lancet Neurol 14: 1171-1181.
65. Hsu W-Y, Ku Y, Zanto TP, et al. (2015) Effects of noninvasive brain stimulation on cognitive function in healthy aging and Alzheimer's disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurobiol Aging 36: 2348-2359.
66. Husebo BS, Ballard C, Sandvik R, et al. (2011) Efficacy of treating pain to reduce behavioural disturbances in residents of nursing homes with dementia: Cluster randomised clinical trial. BMJ 343: d4065.
67. Ihl R, Tribanek M, Bachinskaya N, (2012) Efficacy and tolerability of a once daily formulation of Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761® in Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: Results from a randomised controlled trial. Pharmacopsychiatry 45: 41-46.
68. Ikeda M, Mori E, Matsuo K, et al. (2015) Donepezil for dementia with Lewy bodies: A randomized, placebo-controlled, confirmatory phase III trial. Alzheimers Res Ther 7: 4-13.
69. Jansen WJ, Ossenkoppele R, Knol DL, et al. (2015) Prevalence of cerberal amyloid pathology in persons without dementia: A meta-analysis. J Am Med Assoc 313: 1924-1938.
70. Kavirajan H, Schneider LS, (2007) Efficacy and adverse effects of cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine in vascular dementia: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet Neurol 6: 782-792.
71. Kellermann AJ, Kloft C, (2011) Is there a risk of bleeding associated with standardized Ginkgo biloba extract therapy? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Pharmacotherapy 31: 490-502.
72. Knopman DS, DeKosky ST, Cummings JL, et al. (2001) Practice parameter: Diagnosis of dementia (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 56: 1143-1153.
73. Kuo M-F, Paulus W, Nitsche MA, (2014) Therapeutic effects of non-invasive brain stimulation with direct currents (tDCS) in neuropsychiatric diseases. NeuroImage 85: 948-960.
74. Litvan I, Goldman JG, Tröster AI, et al. (2012) Diagnostic criteria for mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease: Movement Disorder Society Task Force guidelines. Mov Disord 27: 349-356.
75. López-Arrieta JM, Birks J, (2002) Nimodipine for primary degenerative, mixed and vascular dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3: CD000147.
76. Loy C, Schneider L, (2006) Galantamine for Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1: CD001747.
77. Lu D, Song H, Hao Z, et al. (2011) Naftidrofuryl for dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 12: CD002955.
78. McCarney R, Fisher P, Iliffe S, et al. (2008) Ginkgo biloba for mild to moderate dementia in a community setting: A pragmatic, randomised, parallel-group, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 23: 1222-1230.
79. McKeith I, Del Ser T, Spano P, et al. (2000) Efficacy of rivastigmine in dementia with Lewy bodies: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled international study. Lancet 356: 2031-2036.
80. McKeith I, O'Brien J, Walker Z, et al. (2007) Sensitivity and specificity of dopamine transporter imaging with 123I-FP-CIT SPECT in dementia with Lewy bodies: A phase III, multicentre study. Lancet Neurol 6: 305-313.
81. McKeith IG, Dickson DW, Lowe J, et al. (2005) Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy bodies: Third report of the DLB Consortium. Neurology 65: 1863-1872.
82. McKhann GM, Knopman DS, Chertkow H, et al. (2011) The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer's disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 7: 263-269.
83. McShane R, Areosa Sastre A, Minakaran N, (2006) Memantine for dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2: CD003154.
84. Maki PM, Henderson VW, (2012) Hormone therapy, dementia, and cognition: The Women's Health Initiative 10 years on. Climacteric 15: 256-262.
85. Mattsson N, Ewers M, Rich K, et al. (2009) CSF biomarkers and incipient Alzheimer disease. J Am Med Assoc 302: 385-393.
86. Meeuwsen EJ, Melis RJF, Van Der Aa GCHM, et al. (2012) Effectiveness of dementia follow-up care by memory clinics or general practitioners: Randomised controlled trial. BMJ 344: e3086.
87. Mesulam MM, Weintraub S, (2014) Is it time to revisit the classification guidelines for primary progressive aphasia? Neurology 82: 1108-1109.
88. Mitchell AJ, (2009) CSF phosphorylated tau in the diagnosis and prognosis of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: A meta-analysis of 51 studies. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 80: 966-975.
89. Moretti R, Torre P, Antonello RM, et al. (2008) Different responses to rivastigmine in subcortical vascular dementia and multi-infarct dementia. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen 23: 167-176.
90. Mori E, Ikeda M, Nagai R, et al. (2015) Long-term donepezil use for dementia with Lewy bodies: Results from an open-label extension of Phase III trial. Alzheimers Res Ther 7: 5.
91. Mukadam N, Livingston G, Rantell K, et al. (2014) Diagnostic rates and treatment of dementia before and after launch of a national dementia policy: An observational study using English national databases. BMJ Open 4: e004119.
92. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2006) Clinical Guideline 42. Dementia: Supporting People with Dementia and Their Carers in Health and Social Care. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg42/resources/guidance-dementia-pdf (. accessed 3 March 2016).
93. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2014) Transcranial magnetic stimulation for treating and preventing migraine: NICE interventional procedure guidance [IPG477]. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ipg477 (. accessed 3 March 2016).
94. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2015) Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for depression: NICE interventional procedure guidance [IPG542]. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ipg542 (. accessed 3 March 2016).
95. Ngandu T, Lehtisalo J, Solomon A, et al. (2015) A 2 year multidomain intervention of diet, exercise, cognitive training, and vascular risk monitoring versus control to prevent cognitive decline in at-risk elderly people (FINGER): A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 385: 2255-2263.
96. O'Brien JT, (2007) Role of imaging techniques in the diagnosis of dementia. Br J Radiol 80: S71-S77.
97. O'Brien JT, Burns A, (2011) Clinical practice with anti-dementia drugs: A revised (second) consensus statement from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol 25: 997-1019.
98. O'Brien JT, Herholz K, (2015) Amyloid imaging for dementia in clinical practice. BMC Med 13: 163-169.
99. O'Brien JT, Thomas A, (2015) Vascular dementia. Lancet 386: 1698-1706.
100. O'Brien JT, Erkinjuntti T, Reisberg B, et al. (2003) Vascular cognitive impairment. Lancet Neurol 2: 89-98.
101. O'Brien JT, Firbank MJ, Davison C, et al. (2014) 18F-FDG PET and perfusion SPECT in the diagnosis of Alzheimer and Lewy body dementias. J Nucl Med 55: 1959-1965.
102. Ossenkoppele R, Jansen WJ, Rabinovici GD, et al. (2015) Prevalence of amyloid PET positivity in dementia syndromes: A meta-analysis. J Am Med Assoc 313: 1939-1949.
103. Pantoni L, del Ser T, Soglian AG, et al. (2005) Efficacy and safety of nimodipine in subcortical vascular dementia: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Stroke 36: 619-264.
104. Pardini M, Serrati C, Guida S, et al. (2015) Souvenaid reduces behavioral deficits and improves social cognition skills in frontotemporal dementia: A proof-of-concept study. Neurodegener Dis 15: 58-62.
105. Passmore AP, Bayer AJ, Steinhagen-Thiessen E, (2005) Cognitive, global, and functional benefits of donepezil in Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: Results from large-scale clinical trials. J Neurol Sci 229-230: 141-146.
106. Perry E, Ziabreva I, Perry R, et al. (2005) Absence of cholinergic deficits in 'pure' vascular dementia. Neurology 64: 132-133.
107. Prince M, Bryce R, Ferri C, (2011) World Alzheimer Report 2011: The Benefits of Early Diagnosis and Intervention. London: Alzheimer's Disease International. Available at: https://www.alz.co.uk/research/WorldAlzheimerReport2011.pdf (. accessed 3 March 2016).
108. Rascovsky K, Hodges JR, Knopman D, et al. (2011) Sensitivity of revised diagnostic criteria for the behavioural variant of frontotemporal dementia. Brain 134: 2456-2477.
109. Richard E, Kuiper R, Dijkgraaf MGW, et al. (2009) Vascular care in patients with Alzheimer's disease with cerebrovascular lesions: A randomized clinical trial. J Am Geriatr Soc 57: 797-805.
110. Ritchie C, Smailagic N, Ah N, et al. (2014) Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid amyloid beta for the diagnosis of Alzheimer ' s disease dementia and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 6: CD008782.
111. Ritchie CW, Ritchie K, (2012) The PREVENT study: A prospective cohort study to identify mid-life biomarkers of late-onset alzheimer's disease. BMJ Open 2: e001893.
112. Ritchie CW, Molinuevo JL, Truyen L, et al. (2015) Development of interventions for the secondary prevention of Alzheimer's dementia: The European Prevention of Alzheimer's Dementia (EPAD) project. Lancet Psychiatry 3: 179-186.
113. Robinson L, Iliffe S, Brayne C, et al. (2010) Primary care and dementia: 2. Long-term care at home: Psychosocial interventions, information provision, carer support and case management. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 25: 657-664.
114. Rojas-Fernandez CH, Moorhouse P, (2009) Current concepts in vascular cognitive impairment and pharmacotherapeutic implications. Ann Pharmacother 43: 1310-1323.
115. Román GC, Tatemichi TK, Erkinjuntti T, et al. (1993) Vascular dementia: Diagnostic criteria for research studies. Report of the NINDS-AIREN International Workshop. Neurology 43: 250-260.
116. Sachdev P, Kalaria R, O'Brien J, et al. (2014) Diagnostic criteria for vascular cognitive disorders: A VASCOG statement. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 28: 206-218.
117. Salahudeen MS, Duffull SB, Nishtala PS, (2015) Anticholinergic burden quantified by anticholinergic risk scales and adverse outcomes in older people: A systematic review. BMC Geriatr 15: 31-44.
118. Salloway S, Sperling R, Fox NC, et al. (2014) Two phase 3 trials of bapineuzumab in mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 370: 322-333.
119. Sampson EL, Burns A, Richards M, (2011) Improving end-of-life care for people with dementia. Br J Psychiatry 199: 357-359.
120. Schalock RL, Verdugo MA, Gomez LE, et al. (2016) Moving us toward a theory of individual quality of life. Am J Intellect Dev Disabil 121: 1-12.
121. Scheltens P, Kamphuis PJGH, Verhey FRJ, et al. (2010) Efficacy of a medical food in mild Alzheimer's disease: A randomized, controlled trial. Alzheimers Dement 6: 1-10.e1.
122. Scheltens P, Twisk JWR, Blesa R, et al. (2012) Efficacy of souvenaid in mild alzheimer's disease: Results from a randomized, controlled trial. J Alzheimers Dis 31: 225-236.
123. Schmidt R, Hofer E, Bouwman FH, et al. (2015) EFNS-ENS/EAN Guideline on concomitant use of cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine in moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurol 22: 889-898.
124. Schneider LS, DeKosky ST, Farlow MR, et al. (2005) A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of two doses of Ginkgo biloba extract in dementia of the Alzheimer's type. Curr Alzheimer Res 2: 541-551.
125. Schneider LS, Mangialasche F, Andreasen N, et al. (2014) Clinical trials and late-stage drug development for Alzheimer's disease: An appraisal from 1984 to 2014. J Intern Med 275: 251-283.
126. Shah RC, Janos AL, Kline JE, et al. (2013a) Cognitive decline in older persons initiating anticholinergic medications. PLoS One 8: e64111.
127. Shah RC, Kamphuis PJ, Leurgans S, et al. (2013b) The S-Connect study: Results from a randomized, controlled trial of Souvenaid in mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Res Ther 5: 59-67.
128. Sharp SI, Francis PT, Elliott MSJ, et al. (2009) Choline acetyltransferase activity in vascular dementia and stroke. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 28: 233-238.
129. Shumaker SA, Legault C, Rapp SR, et al. (2003) Estrogen plus progestin and the incidence of dementia and mild cognitive impairment in postmenopausal women: The Women's Health Initiative Memory Study: A randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Assoc 289: 2651-2662.
130. Shumaker SA, Legault C, Kuller L, et al. (2004) Conjugated equine estrogens and incidence of probable dementia and mild cognitive impairment in postmenopausal women: Women's Health Initiative Memory Study. J Am Med Assoc 291: 2947-2958.
131. Sperling RA, Aisen PS, Beckett LA, et al. (2011) Toward defining the preclinical stages of Alzheimer's disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 7: 280-92.
132. Stinton C, McKeith I, Taylor J-P, et al. (2015) Pharmacological management of Lewy body dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 172: 731-742.
133. Suemoto CK, Apolinario D, Nakamura-Palacios EM, et al. (2014) Effects of a non-focal plasticity protocol on apathy in moderate Alzheimer's disease: A randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled trial. Brain Stimul 7: 308-313.
134. Thal LJ, Ferris SH, Kirby L, et al. (2005) A randomized, double-blind, study of rofecoxib in patients with mild cognitive impairment. Neuropsychopharmacology 30: 1204-1215.
135. Thomas SJ, Grossberg GT, (2009) Memantine: A review of studies into its safety and efficacy in treating Alzheimer's disease and other dementias. Clin Interv Aging 4: 367-377.
136. US Food and Drug Administration (2011) Medical devices; neurological devices; classification of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation system. Final rule. Fed Regist 76: 44489-44491.
137. Vercelletto M, Boutoleau-Bretonnière C, Volteau C, et al. (2011) Memantine in behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia: Negative results. J Alzheimers Dis 23: 749-759.
138. Vickrey BG, Mittman BS, Connor KI, et al. (2006) The effect of a disease management intervention on quality and outcomes of dementia care: A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 145: 713-726.
139. Von Gunten A, Schlaefke S, Überla K, (2015) Efficacy of Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761(®) in dementia with behavioural and psychological symptoms: A systematic review. World J Biol Psychiatry 17: 622-633.
140. Waldemar G, Dubois B, Emre M, et al. (2007) Recommendations for the diagnosis and management of Alzheimer's disease and other disorders associated with dementia: EFNS guideline. Eur J Neurol 14: e1-e26.
141. Wang B-S, Wang H, Song Y-Y, et al. (2010) Effectiveness of standardized ginkgo biloba extract on cognitive symptoms of dementia with a six-month treatment: A bivariate random effect meta-analysis. Pharmacopsychiatry 43: 86-91.
142. Wang H-F, Yu J-T, Tang S-W, et al. (2015) Efficacy and safety of cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine in cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease, Parkinson's disease dementia, and dementia with Lewy bodies: Systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 86: 135-143.
143. Watanabe N, Yamamura K, Suzuki Y, et al. (2012) Pharmacist-based donepezil outpatient consultation service to improve medication persistence. Patient Prefer Adherence 6: 605-611.
144. Weinmann S, Roll S, Schwarzbach C, et al. (2010) Effects of Ginkgo biloba in dementia: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Geriatr 10: 14.
145. Wilcock J, Iliffe S, Griffin M, et al. (2013) Tailored educational intervention for primary care to improve the management of dementia: The EVIDEM-ED cluster randomized controlled trial. Trials 14: 397-406.
146. Yoshita M, Arai Heii, Arai Hiroyuki, et al. (2015) Diagnostic accuracy of 123I-meta-iodobenzylguanidine myocardial scintigraphy in dementia with Lewy bodies: A multicenter study. PLoS One 10: e0120540.