Cancer-associated venous thromboembolism: Burden, mechanisms, and management

Thrombosis and Haemostasis

Volumn 117, Issue 2, 2017, Pages 219-230

  Ay, Cihan ^a   Pabinger, Ingrid ^a   Cohen, Alexander T ^b  

^a MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA   (Austria)

^b GUY'S AND ST THOMAS' NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cancer; Epidemiology; Risk factors; Treatment; Venous thromboembolism

Indexed keywords

ACENOCOUMAROL; ANTIANEMIC AGENT; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTIVITAMIN K; APIXABAN; BEVACIZUMAB; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 5 LEIDEN; CISPLATIN; DABIGATRAN; DALTEPARIN; EDOXABAN; ENOXAPARIN; FONDAPARINUX; HEPARIN; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; NADROPARIN; PHENPROCOUMON; RIVAROXABAN; TAMOXIFEN; THALIDOMIDE; TINZAPARIN; WARFARIN; FIBRINOLYTIC AGENT;

ANTIANGIOGENIC THERAPY; ARTICLE; BILE DUCT CANCER; BREAST CANCER; CANCER LOCALIZATION; CANCER MORTALITY; CANCER RISK; CANCER STAGING; CHARLSON COMORBIDITY INDEX; COHORT ANALYSIS; COMORBIDITY; DIRECT COAGULATION PATHWAY; FIBRINOLYSIS; HEALTH CARE COST; HORMONAL THERAPY; HYPERCOAGULABILITY; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; OVARY CANCER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RISK ASSESSMENT; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; STOMACH CANCER; SUPPORTIVE THERAPY; SURVIVAL RATE; THROMBOPHILIA; THROMBOSIS; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM; BLEEDING; BLOOD; BLOOD CLOTTING; CHEMICALLY INDUCED; DRUG EFFECTS; HUMAN; NEOPLASM; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; RISK FACTOR; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

ANTICOAGULANTS; BLOOD COAGULATION; FIBRINOLYTIC AGENTS; HEMORRHAGE; HUMANS; NEOPLASMS; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; RISK FACTORS; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

EID: 85011116045     PISSN: 03406245     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1160/TH16-08-0615     Document Type: Article

References (132)

1. Goldhaber SZ. Venous thromboembolism: epidemiology and magnitude of the problem. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 2012; 25: 235–242.
2. Walker AJ, et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer – a cohort study using linked United Kingdom databases. Eur J Cancer 2013; 49: 1404–1413.
3. Heit JA, et al. Risk factors for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a population-based case-control study. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 809–815.
4. Khorana AA, et al. Thromboembolism is a leading cause of death in cancer patients receiving outpatient chemotherapy. J Thromb Haemost 2007; 5: 632–634.
5. Lyman GH, Khorana AA. Cancer, clots and consensus: new understanding of an old problem. J Clin Oncol 2009; 27: 4821–4826.
6. Lillicrap D. Introduction to a series of reviews on cancer-associated thrombotic disease. Blood 2013; 122: 1687–1688.
7. Trousseau A, et al. Lectures on clinical medicine: delivered at the Hotel-Dieu, Paris, New Sydenham Society; 1867.
8. Khorana AA. Malignancy, thrombosis and Trousseau: the case for an eponym. J Thromb Haemost 2003; 1: 2463–2465.
9. Heit JA, et al. Relative impact of risk factors for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a population-based study. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 1245–1248.
10. Cronin-Fenton DP, et al. Hospitalisation for venous thromboembolism in cancer patients and the general population: a population-based cohort study in Denmark, 1997–2006. Br J Cancer 2010; 103: 947–953.
11. Riedl J, et al. Association of mean platelet volume with risk of venous thromboembolism and mortality in patients with cancer. Results from the Vienna Cancer and Thrombosis Study (CATS). Thromb Haemost 2014; 111: 670–678.
12. Gussoni G, et al. Three-month mortality rate and clinical predictors in patients with venous thromboembolism and cancer. Findings from the RIETE registry. Thromb Res 2013; 131: 24–30.
13. Chew HK, et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism and its effect on survival among patients with common cancers. Arch Intern Med 2006; 166: 458–464.
14. Chew HK, et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism and the impact on survival in breast cancer patients. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25: 70–76.
15. Sorensen HT, et al. Prognosis of cancers associated with venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1846–1850.
16. Alcalay A, et al. Venous thromboembolism in patients with colorectal cancer: incidence and effect on survival. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24: 1112–1118.
17. Kourlaba G, et al. The humanistic and economic burden of venous thromboembolism in cancer patients: a systematic review. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 2015; 26: 13–31.
18. Connolly GC, et al. Incidence and predictors of venous thromboembolism (VTE) among ambulatory patients with lung cancer. Lung Cancer 2012; 78: 253–258.
19. Lyman GH, et al. Venous thromboembolism risk in patients with cancer receiving chemotherapy: a real-world analysis. Oncologist 2013; 18: 1321–1329.
20. Cohoon KP, et al. Direct medical costs attributable to cancer-associated venous thromboembolism: A population-based longitudinal study. Am J Med 2016; 129: 1000.e15–1000.e25.
21. Svendsen E, Karwinski B. Prevalence of pulmonary embolism at necropsy in patients with cancer. J Clin Pathol 1989; 42: 805–809.
22. Blom JW, et al. Incidence of venous thrombosis in a large cohort of 66,329 cancer patients: results of a record linkage study. J Thromb Haemost 2006; 4: 529–535.
23. Khorana AA, et al. Incidence and predictors of venous thromboembolism (VTE) among ambulatory high-risk cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy in the United States. Cancer 2013; 119: 648–655.
24. Khorana AA, et al. Thromboembolism in hospitalized neutropenic cancer patients. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24: 484–490.
25. Levitan N, et al. Rates of initial and recurrent thromboembolic disease among patients with malignancy versus those without malignancy. Risk analysis using Medicare claims data. Medicine 1999; 78: 285–291.
26. Stein PD, et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in patients hospitalized with cancer. Am J Med 2006; 119: 60–68.
27. White RH, et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in the year before the diagnosis of cancer in 528,693 adults. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165: 1782–1787.
28. Khorana AA, et al. Frequency, risk factors, and trends for venous thromboembolism among hospitalized cancer patients. Cancer 2007; 110: 2339–2346.
29. Blom JW, et al. Malignancies, prothrombotic mutations, and the risk of venous thrombosis. J Am Med Assoc 2005; 293: 715–722.
30. Zakai NA, et al. Risk factors for venous thrombosis in medical inpatients: validation of a thrombosis risk score. J Thromb Haemost 2004; 2: 2156–2161.
31. Dickmann B, et al. Regional lymph node metastases are a strong risk factor for venous thromboembolism: results from the Vienna Cancer and Thrombosis Study. Haematologica 2013; 98: 1309–1314.
32. Ahlbrecht J, et al. Tumor grade is associated with venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer: results from the Vienna Cancer and Thrombosis Study. J Clin Oncol 2012; 30: 3870–3875.
33. Konigsbrugge O, et al. Presence of varicose veins in cancer patients increases the risk for occurrence of venous thromboembolism. J Thromb Haemost 2013; 11: 1993–2000.
34. Kroger K, et al. Risk factors for venous thromboembolic events in cancer patients. Ann Oncol 2006; 17: 297–303.
35. Mandala M, et al. Acquired and inherited risk factors for developing venous thromboembolism in cancer patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy: a prospective trial. Ann Oncol 2010; 21: 871–876.
36. Zöller B, et al. Family history of venous thromboembolism and risk of hospitalized thromboembolism in cancer patients: a nationwide family study. Thromb Res 2015; 136: 573–581.
37. Pabinger I, et al. Factor V Leiden mutation increases the risk for venous thromboembolism in cancer patients – results from the Vienna Cancer And Thrombosis Study (CATS). J Thromb Haemost 2015; 13: 17–22.
38. Garber JE, et al. Factor V Leiden mutation and thromboembolism risk in women receiving adjuvant tamoxifen for breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2010; 102: 942–949.
39. Eroglu A, et al. The 19-bp deletion of dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) C677T, Factor V Leiden, prothrombin G20210A polymorphisms in cancer patients with and without thrombosis. Ann Hematol 2009; 88: 73–76.
40. Gran OV, et al. Joint effects of cancer and variants in the factor 5 gene on the risk of venous thromboembolism. Haematologica 2016; 101: 1046–1053.
41. Kovac M, et al. Factor V Leiden mutation and high FVIII are associated with an increased risk of VTE in women with breast cancer during adjuvant tamoxifen – results from a prospective, single center, case control study. Eur J Intern Med 2015; 26: 63–67.
42. Lee YG, et al. Cisplatin-based chemotherapy is a strong risk factor for thromboembolic events in small-cell lung cancer. Cancer Res Treat 2015; 47: 670–675.
43. Moore RA, et al. High incidence of thromboembolic events in patients treated with cisplatin-based chemotherapy: a large retrospective analysis. J Clin Oncol 2011; 29: 3466–3473.
44. Seng S, et al. Risk of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer treated with Cisplatin: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Oncol 2012; 30: 4416–4426.
45. Nalluri SR, et al. Risk of venous thromboembolism with the angiogenesis inhibitor bevacizumab in cancer patients: a meta-analysis. J Am Med Assoc 2008; 300: 2277–2285.
46. Rajkumar SV, et al. Phase III clinical trial of thalidomide plus dexamethasone compared with dexamethasone alone in newly diagnosed multiple myeloma: a clinical trial coordinated by the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24: 431–436.
47. Minnema MC, et al. Extremely high levels of von Willebrand factor antigen and of procoagulant factor VIII found in multiple myeloma patients are associated with activity status but not with thalidomide treatment. J Thromb Haemost 2003; 1: 445–449.
48. Trinh VQ, et al. Venous thromboembolism after major cancer surgery: temporal trends and patterns of care. J Am Med Assoc Surg 2014; 149: 43–49.
49. Holm T, et al. Adjuvant preoperative radiotherapy in patients with rectal carcinoma. Adverse effects during long term follow-up of two randomized trials. Cancer 1996; 78: 968–976.
50. Simanek R, et al. High platelet count associated with venous thromboembolism in cancer patients: results from the Vienna Cancer and Thrombosis Study (CATS). J Thromb Haemost 2010; 8: 114–120.
51. Khorana AA, et al. Development and validation of a predictive model for chemotherapy-associated thrombosis. Blood 2008; 111: 4902–4907.
52. Pabinger I, Posch F. Flamethrowers: blood cells and cancer thrombosis risk. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program 2014; 2014: 410–417.
53. Ay C, et al. High plasma levels of soluble P-selectin are predictive of venous thromboembolism in cancer patients: results from the Vienna Cancer and Thrombosis Study (CATS). Blood 2008; 112: 2703–2708.
54. Ay C, et al. D-dimer and prothrombin fragment 1 + 2 predict venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer: results from the Vienna Cancer and Thrombosis Study. J Clin Oncol 2009; 27: 4124–4129.
55. Ay C, et al. Prediction of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer by measuring thrombin generation: results from the Vienna Cancer and Thrombosis Study. J Clin Oncol 2011; 29: 2099–2103.
56. Chen M, Geng JG. P-selectin mediates adhesion of leukocytes, platelets, and cancer cells in inflammation, thrombosis, and cancer growth and metastasis. Arch Immunol Ther Exp 2006; 54: 75–84.
57. Teitel JM, et al. Studies of the prothrombin activation pathway utilizing radioimmunoassays for the F2/F1 + 2 fragment and thrombin--antithrombin complex. Blood 1982; 59: 1086–1097.
58. Adam SS, et al. D-dimer antigen: current concepts and future prospects. Blood 2009; 113: 2878–2887.
59. Stender MT, et al. Preoperative plasma D-dimer is a predictor of postoperative deep venous thrombosis in colorectal cancer patients: a clinical, prospective cohort study with one-year follow-up. Dis Colon Rectum 2009; 52: 446–451.
60. Pasceri V, et al. Direct proinflammatory effect of C-reactive protein on human endothelial cells. Circulation 2000; 102: 2165–2168.
61. Kanz R, et al. Thrombosis risk and survival in cancer patients with elevated C-reactive protein. J Thromb Haemost 2011; 9: 57–63.
62. Reitter EM, et al. Longitudinal analysis of haemostasis biomarkers in cancer patients during antitumor treatment. J Thromb Haemost 2016; 14: 294–305.
63. Ay C, et al. Prediction of venous thromboembolism in cancer patients. Blood 2010; 116: 5377–5382.
64. Kyrle PA, Eichinger S. Is Virchow’s triad complete? Blood 2009; 114: 1138–1139.
65. Falanga A, et al. A new procoagulant in acute leukemia. Blood 1988; 71: 870–875.
66. Kazmierczak M, et al. Cancer procoagulant in patients with adenocarcinomas. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 2005; 16: 543–547.
67. Ueno T, et al. Tissue factor expression in breast cancer tissues: its correlation with prognosis and plasma concentration. Br J Cancer 2000; 83: 164–170.
68. Uno K, et al. Tissue factor expression as a possible determinant of thromboembolism in ovarian cancer. Br J Cancer 2007; 96: 290–295.
69. Thaler J, et al. Intratumoral tissue factor expression and risk of venous thromboembolism in brain tumor patients. Thromb Res 2013; 131: 162–165.
70. Freyssinet JM. Cellular microparticles: what are they bad or good for? J Thromb Haemost 2003; 1: 1655–1662.
71. Sinauridze EI, et al. Platelet microparticle membranes have 50– to 100-fold higher specific procoagulant activity than activated platelets. Thromb Haemost 2007; 97: 425–434.
72. Auwerda JJ, et al. Microparticle-associated tissue factor activity and venous thrombosis in multiple myeloma. Thromb Haemost 2011; 105: 14–20.
73. Tesselaar ME, et al. Microparticle-associated tissue factor activity: a link between cancer and thrombosis? J Thromb Haemost 2007; 5: 520–527.
74. Thaler J, et al. Microparticle-associated tissue factor activity in patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer and its effect on fibrin clot formation. Transl Res 2014; 163: 145–150.
75. Manly DA, et al. Increased microparticle tissue factor activity in cancer patients with Venous Thromboembolism. Thromb Res 2010; 125: 511–512.
76. Zwicker JI, et al. Prediction and prevention of thromboembolic events with enoxaparin in cancer patients with elevated tissue factor-bearing microparticles: a randomized-controlled phase II trial (the Microtec study). Br J Haematol 2013; 160: 530–537.
77. Zwicker JI, et al. Tumor-derived tissue factor-bearing microparticles are associated with venous thromboembolic events in malignancy. Clin Cancer Res 2009; 15: 6830–6840.
78. Thaler J, et al. Microparticle-associated tissue factor activity, venous thromboembolism and mortality in pancreatic, gastric, colorectal and brain cancer patients. J Thromb Haemost 2012; 10: 1363–1370.
79. Auwerda JJ, et al. Prothrombotic coagulation abnormalities in patients with newly diagnosed multiple myeloma. Haematologica 2007; 92: 279–280.
80. Nickel KF, et al. The polyphosphate-factor XII pathway drives coagulation in prostate cancer-associated thrombosis. Blood 2015; 126: 1379–1389.
81. Seruga B, et al. Cytokines and their relationship to the symptoms and outcome of cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 2008; 8: 887–899.
82. Yagci M, et al. Fibrinolytic activity in multiple myeloma. Am J Hematol 2003; 74: 231–237.
83. Kirchhofer D, et al. Endothelial cells stimulated with tumor necrosis factoralpha express varying amounts of tissue factor resulting in inhomogenous fibrin deposition in a native blood flow system. Effects of thrombin inhibitors. J Clin Invest 1994; 93: 2073–2083.
84. Szotowski B, et al. Procoagulant soluble tissue factor is released from endothelial cells in response to inflammatory cytokines. Circ Res 2005; 96: 1233–1239.
85. Bernardo A, et al. Effects of inflammatory cytokines on the release and cleavage of the endothelial cell-derived ultralarge von Willebrand factor multimers under flow. Blood 2004; 104: 100–106.
86. Fuchs TA, et al. Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) impact on deep vein thrombosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2012; 32: 1777–1783.
87. Martinod K, Wagner DD. Thrombosis: tangled up in NETs. Blood 2014; 123: 2768–2776.
88. Demers M, et al. Cancers predispose neutrophils to release extracellular DNA traps that contribute to cancer-associated thrombosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2012; 109: 13076–13081.
89. Hunt BJ, Jurd KM. Endothelial cell activation. A central pathophysiological process. Br Med J 1998; 316: 1328–1329.
90. Gupta AK, et al. Activated endothelial cells induce neutrophil extracellular traps and are susceptible to NETosis-mediated cell death. FEBS Lett 2010; 584: 3193–3197.
91. Fuchs TA, et al. Extracellular DNA traps promote thrombosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010; 107: 15880–15885.
92. von Bruhl ML, et al. Monocytes, neutrophils, and platelets cooperate to initiate and propagate venous thrombosis in mice in vivo. J Exp Med 2012; 209: 819–835.
93. Binder BR, et al. Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1: physiological and pathophysiological roles. News Physiol Sci 2002; 17: 56–61.
94. Casslen B, et al. Plasminogen activators and plasminogen activator inhibitors in blood and tumour fluids of patients with ovarian cancer. Eur J Cancer 1994; 30A: 1302–1309.
95. Pyke C, et al. The plasminogen activation system in human colon cancer: messenger RNA for the inhibitor PAI-1 is located in endothelial cells in the tumor stroma. Cancer Res 1991; 51: 4067–4071.
96. Kearon C, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest 2008; 133: 454S-545S.
97. Prandoni P, et al. Recurrent venous thromboembolism and bleeding complications during anticoagulant treatment in patients with cancer and venous thrombosis. Blood 2002; 100: 3484–3488.
98. Hutten BA, et al. Incidence of recurrent thromboembolic and bleeding complications among patients with venous thromboembolism in relation to both malignancy and achieved international normalized ratio: a retrospective analysis. J Clin Oncol 2000; 18: 3078–3083.
99. Luk C, et al. Extended outpatient therapy with low molecular weight heparin for the treatment of recurrent venous thromboembolism despite warfarin therapy. Am J Med 2001; 111: 270–273.
100. Kearon C, et al. Antithrombotic Therapy for VTE Disease: CHEST Guideline and Expert Panel Report. Chest 2016; 149: 315–352.
101. Lyman GH, et al. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis and treatment in patients with cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline update. J Oncol Pract 2015; 11: e442–e444.
102. Mandala M, et al. Venous thromboembolism (VTE) in cancer patients. ESMO clinical recommendations for prevention and management. Thromb Res 2010; 125 (Suppl 2): S117–119.
103. NCCN Clinical Practical Guidelines in Oncology. Cancer-associated venous thromboembolic disease version 1. 2014. Available at: http://www.nccn.org/ professionals/physician_gls/f_guidelines.asp. Accessed March 11, 2016.
104. Farge D, et al. International clinical practice guidelines for the treatment and prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer. J Thromb Haemost 2013; 11: 56–70.
105. Lyman GH, et al. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis and treatment in patients with cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline update. J Clin Oncol 2013; 31: 2189–2204.
106. Watson HG, et al. Guideline on aspects of cancer-related venous thrombosis. Br J Haematol 2015; 170: 640–648.
107. Khorana AA, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism in cancer outpatients: guidance from the SSC of the ISTH. J Thromb Haemost 2014; 12: 1928–1931.
108. Terpos E, et al. European Myeloma Network guidelines for the management of multiple myeloma-related complications. Haematologica 2015; 100: 1254–1266.
109. Agnelli G, et al. A clinical outcome-based prospective study on venous thromboembolism after cancer surgery: the @RISTOS project. Ann Surg 2006; 243: 89–95.
110. Lee AY, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin versus a coumarin for the prevention of recurrent venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 146–153.
111. Meyer G, et al. Comparison of low-molecular-weight heparin and warfarin for the secondary prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer: a randomized controlled study. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 1729–1735.
112. Deitcher SR, et al. Secondary prevention of venous thromboembolic events in patients with active cancer: enoxaparin alone versus initial enoxaparin followed by warfarin for a 180-day period. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2006; 12: 389–396.
113. Hull RD, et al. Self-managed long-term low-molecular-weight heparin therapy: the balance of benefits and harms. Am J Med 2007; 120: 72–82.
114. Romera A, et al. A randomised open-label trial comparing long-term sub-cutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin compared with oral-anticoagulant therapy in the treatment of deep venous thrombosis. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2009; 37: 349–356.
115. Lee AY, et al. Tinzaparin vs warfarin for treatment of acute venous thromboembolism in patients with active cancer: A randomized clinical trial. J Am Med Assoc 2015; 314: 677–686.
116. Posch F, et al. Treatment of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer: A network meta-analysis comparing efficacy and safety of anticoagulants. Thromb Res 2015; 136: 582–589.
117. Francis CW, et al. Treatment of venous thromboembolism in cancer patients with dalteparin for up to 12 months: the DALTECAN Study. J Thromb Haemost 2015; 13: 1028–1035.
118. Delate T, et al. Outpatient use of low molecular weight heparin monotherapy for first-line treatment of venous thromboembolism in advanced cancer. Oncologist 2012; 17: 419–427.
119. Mahe I, et al. Long-term anticoagulant therapy of patients with venous thromboembolism. What are the practices? PLoS One 2015; 10: e0128741.
120. Wittkowsky AK. Barriers to the long-term use of low-molecular weight heparins for treatment of cancer-associated thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost 2006; 4: 2090–2091.
121. Adam SS, et al. Comparative effectiveness of warfarin and new oral anticoagulants for the management of atrial fibrillation and venous thromboembolism: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 2012; 157: 796–807.
122. van der Hulle T, et al. Effectiveness and safety of novel oral anticoagulants as compared with vitamin K antagonists in the treatment of acute symptomatic venous thromboembolism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Thromb Haemost 2014; 12: 320–328.
123. Levine MN, et al. A randomized phase II trial of apixaban for the prevention of thromboembolism in patients with metastatic cancer. J Thromb Haemost 2012; 10: 807–814.
124. Mazilu L, et al. Venous thromboembolism: secondary prevention with dabigatran vs. acenocumarol in patients with paraneoplastic deep vein thrombosis. Results from a small prospective study in Romania. Cardiovasc Res 2014; 103: S39-S39.
125. van Es N, et al. Direct oral anticoagulants compared with vitamin K antagonists for acute venous thromboembolism: evidence from phase 3 trials. Blood 2014; 124: 1968–1975.
126. Prins MH, et al. Oral rivaroxaban versus enoxaparin with vitamin K antagonist for the treatment of symptomatic venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer (EINSTEIN-DVT and EINSTEIN-PE): a pooled subgroup analysis of two randomised controlled trials. Lancet Haematol 2014; 1: e37-e46.
127. Agnelli G, et al. Oral apixaban for the treatment of venous thromboembolism in cancer patients: results from the AMPLIFY trial. J Thromb Haemost 2015; 13: 2187–2191.
128. Raskob GE, et al. Edoxaban for venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer: results from a non-inferiority subgroup analysis of the Hokusai-VTE randomised, double-blind, double-dummy trial. Lancet Haematol 2016; 3: e379–e387.
129. Schulman S, et al. Treatment with dabigatran or warfarin in patients with venous thromboembolism and cancer. Thromb Haemost 2015; 114: 150–157.
130. Short NJ, Connors JM. New oral anticoagulants and the cancer patient. Oncologist 2014; 19: 82–93.
131. van Es N, et al. Edoxaban for treatment of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer. Rationale and design of the Hokusai VTE-cancer study. Thromb Haemost 2015; 114: 1268–1276.
132. Young A, et al. SELECT-D: Anticoagulation therapy in selected cancer patients at risk of recurrence of venous thromboembolism. ASCO Annual Meeting Proceedings; 2014; 2014. p. TPS9661.